5. Antonyms

Antonyms are word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such as hot and cold, black and white, and in and out. Antonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one and the same part of speech, close in meaning. Antonyms are broadly divided into 3 categories:

Graded are antonyms which allow for a natural, gradual transition between two poles: good/bad, hot/ cold

Complementary represent the two opposite possibilities.(man-woman, dead - alive)

Relational are antonyms which share the same semantic features, only the focus, or direction, is reversed: tie/untie, buy/sell, give/receive, teacher/pupil, father/son.

5. Мinor types of semantic relations

Hyponym - In linguistics, a specific term used to designate a member of a class. For instance, oak is a hyponym of tree, and dog is a hyponym of animal.

Hyperonym - is a word with a general meaning that has basically the same meaning of a more specific word. For example, dog is a hypernym, while collie and chihuahua are more specific subordinate terms.

Equonym - generic term as compared to the specific names wolf, dog or mouse (which are called equonyms). Dog, in its turn, may serve as a generic term for different breeds such as bull-dog, collie, poodle, etc.

5. Phraseological units as distinguished from free words.

6. Different classification of phraseological units.

Phraseology is known in the narrow sense as a branch of Linguistics. In the lexicological aspect Phraseology studies the meaning of set expressions and idioms. The sources of Phraseology.

In etymological classification of idiomatic phrases by L.P. Smith in his book “Words and Idioms”, the author points out the following sources of phraseology:

1. Ph. Units built around the names of different parts of the body: soft in the head, to have an open hand, to have a good head on one’s shoulders.

2. Ph. Units from sport life: straight from the shoulder, to keep the ball rolling, to back up(support).

3. Set expressions from art: to play the first fiddle, out of tune, to make a scene, to change one’s tune.

4. Phrases from Shakespeare writing: to be or not to be, to make sure double sure, the beginning of the end, to the heart’s content.

5. Biblical expressions: safe and sound, dairy bread, to be a proverb and a byword

A Phraseological Unit & its definition. The combinations of words maybe divided into free and set phraseology studies, set combinations of words. Free word-combinations comprise two or more notional words combined in accordance with grammar rules. Each component preserves its individual lexical and grammatical meanings, stylistic colouring and syntactical function: to break a match (2 matches): to change a plan (a programme); Set expressions are word combinations characterized by structural, semantic, functional, stylistic integrity, i.e. neither the forms nor the order of the components may be changed, no words can be inserted into PhUs, the meaning of the whole structure is not the sum of the meaning of PhU components, the components are united by one syntactic function and stylistic colouring.

Comparison

Free combinations: - have insertions (вставки) to take a book, to receive the books; - each component preserves an independent meaning: to take, to grasp, to snatch a book; - each component has its own stylistic colouring: to help - neutral style; daddy - colloquial. - free word combinations are formed in speech when a necessity arises

Set expressions: - stable grammatical structures: to rain cats and dogs, to snow black a cat or hounds; - the meaning of the components put together isn't adequate to the meaning of the whole PhU: to rain cats & dogs; - one logically possible component: profound, thorough, considerable deep gratitude: - the PhU has one stylistic colouring - colloquial: to kick the bucket - colloquial style: - we don't create but use PhU by tradition the usage of a PhU is programmed for effect.