Sequence of actions
Actions that are taking place concurrently (in any of the three tenses) must by their very nature be imperfective:
Тато сидів за столом, пив каву, та читав газету.
Dad was sitting at the table, drinking (some) coffee and reading the newspaper.
Graphically we can describe these actions as follows:
с
идів
пив
(where the lines indicate process)
читав
If сидів sets the stage – or is the background action – other completed, perfective, actions can take place during the larger process:
Коли він сидів за столом, він випив кави та прочитав три листи.
When he was sitting at the table, he drank (some) coffee and (then) read three letters.
випив прочитав
(три листи)
в і н с и д і в
A sequence of completed actions can be expressed without a background action, and these actions will naturally be perfective:
Коля прийшов додому, роздягся та випив чашку кави.
Kolja came home, (then) took off his coat, and (then) drank a cup of coffee.
These are completed, temporally unconnected (sequential) actions:
п рийшов роздягся випив (чашку кави)
Х Х Х
3. The passive
In many languages actions may be described as 'active' as opposed to 'passive': in the former 'X does Y', while in the latter 'Y is done by X' ('John reads the book' vs. The book is read by John'). There are three ways of expressing passive actions in Ukrainian: (1) by means of the past passive participle, (2) the particle -ся, and (3) the 3pl. form of the verb.
Use of the past passive participle (PPR): attributive
The past passive participle is the only form that unambiguously expresses the notion 'passive' in the Ukrainian language; as we noted earlier, the present passive is no longer used in Ukrainian (apart from forms frozen as adjectives). The PPR is only formed from transitive verbs, since the object of the action functions as the subject of the passive sentence. In contrast to other Slavonic languages, the PPP. can be either perfective or imperfective, although perfective formations are in practice far more common (compare Russian, in which it is perfective in almost all instances). A perfective refers to an action that has been completed, while an imperfective form refers to an ongoing or lasting act in the past. Note that the form of the PPP. is that of an adjective, and, as such, when modifying a noun it must agree with it in case, gender, and number. Examples (with literal translations):
збудований театр a built theatre (a theatre that was built)
прочитана книжка a read book (a book that was read)
відчинене вікно an open(ed) window
прислані листи posted letters (letters that were posted)
Він батько вбитого солдата. He's the father of the soldier who was killed.
недопитий чай the unfinished tea (lit. 'not drank up')
недосолена риба fish that hasn't been quite salted (enough)
доварений суп soup that has been cooked (enough)
позначення подовженої the marking of lengthened pronunciation of вимови приголосних consonants (re transcriptions in the dictionary)
The imperfective PPR, in addition to referring to an action that was taking place in the past, can express results that continue to be in effect in the present; Dudyk (1988: 320-1) makes the point that some of these participial forms could therefore easily be replaced by present tense active forms. Thus:
бажаний результат the desired effect (not necessarily just in the past) січене сіно the cut hay (hay that has been, was being cut)
And citing the writer Ivan Franko (Dudyk, ibid.):
І почуває він себе таким слабким, безсилим і безвільним, мов пилина, вітрами гнана.
And he feels so weak, powerless and 'unfree', like a speck of dust driven by the winds. (Implied: that is being driven by the winds.)
When the agent (the one who carried out the action) is mentioned, it appears in the instrumental case:
Ти читала книжку, написану мною? Have you read the book (that was) written by me?
Ось стаття, перекладена ним. Here is the article translated by him.
У тому будинку, збудованому In this building built by the workers. . . робітниками...
До країни, відкритої нами ... То the country discovered by us ...
Use of the PPR: predicative
In the predicate the PPR is used in constructions which involve the copula 'to be' in English: 'The stadium was built', 'the book was written', and so on. The standard formulation is as follows: an impersonal form of the PPP. in -нo, -то is used, and - against expectation - the object will appear in the accusative; this shows an incomplete separation of the passive from the active, as the object would occur in the accusative in active constructions. The ending of the PPP. is not neuter (the neuter ending being -e), but strictly a marker of the impersonal quality of the formulation:
Цю книжку було написано мною.
This book was written by me.
На одній стіні зображено сина Івана.
On one wall is depicted the son of Ivan.
Собор збудовано в 1422 році.
The Cathedral was built in the year 1422.
Статтю написано в Англії.
The article was written in England.
Його переміщено на кафедру російської мови.
Не was/has been transferred to the department of Russian language.
У цьому творі відображено життя українського народу.
In this work is/was reflected the life of the Ukrainian people.
Note that a form of бути is not necessary here, as it is felt to be superfluous: the PPP. expresses past tense in and of itself. If a form of бути is used, it will be було, agreeing with the impersonal form in -но, -то; in such a case, this form may reflect a pluperfect sense 'had been done':
При Софійському соборі було засновано школу ...
At St Sophia Cathedral a school was/had been founded ...
Passive constructions with -ся verbs
In addition to the uses of -ся verbs noted above, they can also be used in a passive sense:
Як пишеться це слово? How is that word written (spelt)?
Ці слова не вживаються. These words are not used.
Як робиться каша? How is gruel/are grits made?
Note that some of these constructions could be interpreted either as passives or as neutral intransitives:
Вікно відчинилося. The window was opened or
The window opened (by itself)
In practice, making such fine distinctions is not necessary; if the question 'by whom/what' cannot be answered in relation to a given sentence, it may be treated as a simple intransitive construction rather than as a passive.
Passive constructions with the 3pl. form of the verb
Although not a true passive formation, the 3pl. of the verb is used very frequently to express that something 'was/is done'; these constructions should therefore be translated as such, and not literally as 3pl. verbs:
По радіо передали, що ... (The message that. . .) was broadcast by radio
У газетах пишуть, що ... It is written in the papers that. ..
Говорять, що ... It is said that. . .