8. Relate the characteristics of modern science. Расскажите о характерных особенностях современной науки.

As opposed to medieval science, which hailed theology and metaphysics as the pinnacle of scientific knowledge, modern science only references natural objects which can be perceived by the five senses or can be perceived with the aid of instruments. As a result, methods of observation have also led to developing branches of science that deal only with theoretical components, such as quantum physics and some parts of astronomy. Once facts have been observed, tested and retested, scientists try to arrange their observations in the format of expressions referred to as scientific laws. Observations which cannot yet be tested and proven on a consistent basis are referred to as scientific theory.

Scientific Method. The scientific method is another important component of modern science, as it describes the objective basis for testing and communicating results from scientific investigations. Using the scientific method, a scientist will form an educated guess regarding the outcome of a process or experiment and then use various tests, which isolate one or more variables, in order to obtain an objective and certifiable outcome. If the hypothesis does not match up with the conclusion of the experiment, then the hypothesis must be modified to meet the outcomes.

Two Types of Science. Modern science can be divided into two different branches, which are known as applied science and pure science. Pure science describes the science of discovery. Applied science describes the process of developing new technology and products for consumers and often results from the experiments and theories of pure science. While both branches of science utilize the powers of observation, the scientific method and mathematics, pure science is more concerned with expanding and testing the existing body of scientific knowledge while applied science seeks to put that knowledge to use.

Post-nonclassical stage corresponds to the paradigm of formation and self-organization. Key features of the new (post-nonclassical) image

9. Relate the aims and objectives of the researches and their classification on various

grounds. Расскажите о целях и задачах научных исследований и их классификации по различным основаниям.

Form of existence and development of science is the scientific study. The purpose of research - the definition of a particular object and comprehensive, accurate study of its structure, characteristics, relations based on science developed in the principles and methods of knowledge, as well as obtaining useful for human activity results in the production of the introduction of a further effect. The object of scientific research are material or ideal system, and the subject - the structure of the system, the interaction of its elements, various properties, patterns of development.

Research results are evaluated, the higher the above scientific conclusions and generalizations than they authentically and effectively. They should form the basis for new scientific developments.

One of the most important requirements for scientific research, is a scientific generalization, which will allow to establish the relationship and communication between the studied phenomena and processes and to make scientific conclusions. The deeper conclusions, the higher the level of scientific research.

Scientific studies are classified on various grounds. For example, fundamental and applied research. Under the fundamental research to understand experimental or theoretical activities aimed to gain new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of human society and the natural environment. Applied research is defined as research aimed mainly at application new knowledge to achieve practical goals and specific objectives. By source of funds are distinguished research budget, contractual and unfunded. Research budget financed from the budget of the Russian Federation or budgets of subjects of the Russian Federation. Contractual research funding organizations - customers under commercial agreements. Unfunded research can be carried out on the initiative of a scientist, an individual plan of the teacher.

For the duration of the research can be divided into long-term, short-term and rapid investigation.

In science can distinguish empirical and theoretical levels of research and organization of knowledge. Theoretical level of scientific knowledge presupposes special abstract objects (constructs) and linking their theoretical laws created for the purpose of description and explanation of the idealized empirical situations, ie, with the aim of knowing the essence of phenomena. Their purpose - to expand the knowledge society and to help better understand the laws of nature. Such developments are mainly used for the further development of new theoretical research that can be long-term, low cost and other elements. Experiential knowledge are evidence obtained by means of observations and experiments, and declaring a qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects and phenomena. Repeatability and stable connection between the empirical characteristics are expressed in terms of empirical laws, often having probabilistic nature.

Thus, the theoretical level of research is characterized by a predominance of logical methods of cognition. At this level, we study the facts obtained, processed using logical concepts, reasoning, laws and other forms of thinking. Here studied objects mentally analyzed, summarized, comprehend their essence, internal communications, the laws of development. At this level of knowledge through the senses (empiricism) may be present, but it is a slave. Structural components of theoretical knowledge are the problem, hypothesis and theory. Under the challenge to understand complex theoretical or practical problem solving methods which are unknown or not fully known. Hypothesis - This requires testing and proving the assumption of the reasons that cause certain effects on the structure of the objects and the nature of internal and external communications structural elements.