Lexical Exercises

*XVI. Write out the equivalents in pairs:

a) component, comprise, set (lay) down, make up, erode, common, effusive, sense, bed, easily, quality, fraction, transport, identify;

b) ordinary, compose, recognize, constituent, meaning, property, readily, include, portion (part), carry, deposit, layer, wear away, extrusive

*XVII. Write out the opposites in pairs:

a) solid, molten, coarse, low, dark, inside, thick, hot, cool, dry, rarely, under, insignificant, upper, intrusive;

b) fine, light, considerable, outside, liquid, thin, cold, extrusive, wet, often, over, solidified, high, lower, warm

XVIII. Give Russian equivalents of the following:

a solid rocky shell; to become molten; under certain conditions; to be subjected to high pressures; to average; coarse particles; fine particles; to change in some way; to be still hot enough inside; the thickness of the crust; the unit constituents; granular rocks; coarse-grained; underlying (overlying) rocks; to tend; to result in (from); to recognize

XIX. Give English equivalents of the following:

изверженная (магматическая) порода; жидкий (жидкость); остывать; химический состав; включать — содержать (3 слова); первоначальные свойства; ил; в результате; состоять из (4 слова); откладывать (3 слова); толстый (тонкий) пласт; покрывать; глина; эродировать; определять форму кристалла; обильный; узнать — опознать (2 глагола)

XX. Translate the text into Russian without a dictionary. Get ready to give an extensive answer to the question: "In what respects (ways) do sedimentary rocks differ from igneous rocks?" (Remember the synonyms: bed — layer — stratum; bedded — layered — stratified.):

THE EARTH'S CRUST

The earth's crust, as we know it, is built up of large masses of rock which in geology we call rock formations. The commonest type of rock formation which we have to consider is in the shape of a great slab¹ or sheet² many square miles in area, varying in thickness from less than an inch in certain localities to great thicknesses of hundreds of feet. In the normal case these great layers of the earth's crust lie almost flat, but in certain places they are folded³ and even broken so that they are in almost every position. Another type of formation is unbedded in character and irregular in shape, a huge (very great) mass covering many square miles at the surface and running downward through the crust to depths which are unknown. These rocks are of quite a different origin, and for the most part of a very different physical and chemical character from that type of rock which is found in layers. The layer type of rock is represented chiefly by the group which we call sedimentary rocks and the second group by those which we call igneous rocks. Both types of rock are built up from constituents which we call minerals.

Notes

¹ slab — плита

² sheet — пласт

³ to fold — сминать в складки

XXI. Read the text and practise questions (given below) and answers:

HISTORICAL MEANING OF ROCK CHARACTERS

Rocks comprise igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic types. We know that igneous rocks originate both as intrusions and extrusions, that sedimentary rocks are formed by the breaking down and deposition of pre-existing rock material, and that metamorphic rocks are produced mainly by heat and pressure affecting other rocks. As the origin and history of all these differ, each must be considered separately from the standpoint¹ of historical geology.

Metamorphic rocks comprise meta-igneous types, derived by alteration of igneous rocks, and meta-sedimentary types, formed by alteration of pre-existing sedimentary formations.

Note

¹ from the standpoint of — с точки зрения

Ask your groupmates:

1) what the three main classes of rocks are, 2) in what two ways igneous rocks originate, 3) how sedimentary rocks are formed, 4) what agencies metamorphic rocks are mainly produced by, 5) what rocks are called meta-igneous and meta-sedimentary, 6) why the three main classes of rocks must be consi-dered separately from the standpoint of historical geology.

XXII. Translate into Russian using a dictionary:

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition, in the depressions of the earth's crust, of the products of the weathering of pre-existing rocks. Weathered rocks are broken down into fragmentary material and soluble compounds. The latter can be transported only in water, the former by moving water, by ice, by the wind or by gravity-slip. The coarser-grained rocks, containing boulders and pebbles, are deposited nearer the place of weathering than finer-grained types like sands and clays.

2. Sedimentary rocks may be divided into the clastic and non-clastic types. Clastic rocks are those composed of the fragmental materials resulting from the breaking up of other rocks. The most common ones originate through the weathering, transporting, and depositing processes. These give rise to^l the conglomerates, the sandstones and the shales. The non-clastic sedimentary rocks in general are derived through the agency of some form of life (biochemical) or are chemical precipitates. They are derived only indirectly from other rocks through their decomposition and redeposition. Their materials existed originally in the older rocks, but by weathering and solution they have been separated, and, in general, running water has carried them to the sea to form the salts of the ocean.

Note

¹ to give rise to — давать начало чему-л., вызывать, порождать, приводить к

Assignment:

1) Explain the meaning of the italicized prefixes.

2) Memorize the following words and phrases:

clastic-fragmentary, compound, decomposition, shale, sandstone, coarse-grained, fine-grained, boulder, pebble, to give rise to

3) Speak about the two types of sedimentary rocks, their nature and formation.

XXIII. Read the text. Give the essence of the article in English. (Memorize the words given below before reading.):

SOILS

In moist¹ climates the lithosphere nearly everywhere is covered with vegetation beneath which are found loose² materials consisting of sand, clay, and other rock particles mixed with organic matter which has resulted from the decay³ of vegetation. This thin cover of the earth's surface is the soil⁴. It passes downward into the subsoil which is made up of rock fragments. The subsoil contains only a little organic matter. The soil and subsoil constitute the mantle rock⁵. Along streams and in mines and wells it is seen that the mantle rock is underlain by solid rock which is called bedrock⁶.

It follows that the word "soil" is popularly used to denote the loose material constituting that part of the immediate surface of the earth in which vegetation grows. In this sense, the word describes a layer no more than a few inches thick, usually containing some humus.

Most geologists and all engineers use the word "soil" to distinguish loose fragmental material in the crust of the earth from solid rock. The records of geology show that the early geologists used the term in exactly the same way as engineers of today to denote all the loose fragmented material found in the earth's crust, excluding only the top few inches with its organic content, to which the term "topsoil"⁷ is applied.

The joint use⁸ of the word "soil" is gradually being accepted⁹ within the-scientific world; the context usually shows in which sense the word is used.

Notes

¹ moist — влажный, сырой

² loose [lu:s] — рыхлый, несвязанный

³ decay [diˊkeɪ] — гниение, разложение

⁴ soil — 1. почва; 2. покровная (рыхлая) порода

⁵ mantle rock — покровная порода, поверхностный слой, рыхлый материал на поверх-ности коренной породы

⁶ bedrock — коренная (подстилающая, основная) порода

⁷ topsoil — почва верхнего горизонта, растительный слой

⁸ joint use — (зд.) использование в разных значениях

⁹ to accept [əkˊsept] — принимать

XXIV. Translate into Russian without a dictionary. Pay attention to active vocabulary:

1. Many common minerals can be recognized upon inspection. All mine-rals, even in the form of small specimens (образец), can be identified by X-ray analysis. 2. Rock salt, NaCl, crystallizes when sea water is evaporated, and by this means it has been collected into thick beds, some of which have been bu-ried beneath (= under) other rocks and preserved from solution. 3. Petrographic analysis is the most frequently used method for the precise identification of both minerals and rocks. 4. If mineral composition of rocks is chosen as the basis for classification, petrographic study of thin sections (шлиф) of rock under a microscope is required. 5. Although some minerals such as quartz and calcite are readily identifiable, the composition of others cannot be determined without careful measurements (измерения). 6. Rocks composed almost entirely of fine-grained silica are common, but they rarely form large masses. 7. Basalt is the world's most abundant lava. 8. Granite, characterized by a granular texture, has feldspar and quartz as its two most abundant minerals, and therefore most granite is light colored. 9. Clastic sedimentary rocks are those composed of broken and worn fragments of pre-existing minerals, rock-particles or shells that have been cemented together. 10. The materials erupted from volcanoes include solids, liquids, and gases. 11. A large body of magma underground may cool to the temperature at which one or more minerals begin to crystallize. Because cooling is slow the crystals of these minerals grow to considerable size. 12. Naturally enough, as soon as the lava reaches the surface it cools rapidly and the fluid tends to solidify. In some cases the solidification occurs only at the surface, and then a stream of the lava flows along beneath the hardened crust. 13. In deeply buried magmas, the gases are held within (inside) the magma during much of the crystallization. 14. The conditions to which the rocks are subjected determine the kind of metamorphic changes that occur. 15. Since any rock may be metamorphosed in one or several different ways, there are many different kinds of metamorphic rocks.

XXV. Translate into English:

I. 1. Атмосфера, гидросфера и литосфера составляют наружные (внешние) части земного шара. 2. Земная кора является продуктом физико-химической эволюции вещества мантии в течение геологического времени. 3. Земная кора лежит (покоится) на породах верхней мантии и изменяется по мощности от 40-70 км под континентами до 5-10 км под океанами. 4. Чем выше горные системы материков, тем толще земная кора. 5. Материковая кора отличается от океанической коры не только по мощности. Первая характеризуется трехслойным строением (a three-layered structure) и состоит из осадочных пород, слоя гранитов и затем базальтов.

Вторая имеет двухслойное строение, т. к. под океанами граниты, как правило, отсутствуют, и осадочные породы лежат прямо на базальтах. 6. Многие геологи полагают, что кора материков может «плавать» (float) на верхней мантии. Ее породы более пластичны благодаря (due to) высоким давлениям и температурам.

II. 1. Горные породы, слагающие земную кору, подразделяются на 3 основные группы: магматические, осадочные и метаморфические. Осадочные породы покрывают почти три четверти поверхности Земли. Осадочные породы также называются слоистыми (напластованными — stratified — layered — bedded) породами, т. к. различные осадки откла-дываются обычно под водой или на суше слоями. Характер слоистости (stratification) помогает определить условия, при которых эти осадки накапливались. 2. Магматические горные породы образуются из расплав-ленного (жидкого) материала, называемого магмой. Их можно разделить на два типа: вулканические (volcanic) горные породы и плутонические (plutonic) горные породы. Первые образуются остыванием и затвер-деванием расплавленного материала (магмы) у поверхности или на поверхности земли, вторые — остыванием и кристаллизацией магмы на различных глубинах внутри (inside, within) земной коры. Плутонические породы, называемые также интрузивными, обычно являются грубо-зернистыми, т. к. они образуются медленным остыванием и кристал-лизацией (отвердеванием) магмы. Вулканические породы, называемые также эффузивными, обычно мелкозернистые или даже стекловатые, т. к. получаются в результате быстрого остывания магмы (лавы) на поверхности земли. Магматические породы составляют 95% от общей массы пород, слагающих земную кору. По химическому и минеральному составу (на основании) магматические породы классифицируются как основные (basic) и кислые (acid, acidic). 3. Метаморфические горные поро-ды образуются в земной коре из магматических и осадочных пород путем их глубокого (profound) изменения под действием (through the action of) высоких температур, давлений, горячих растворов и газовых компонентов. Так, любая порода, будь то изверженная или осадочная, может изменяться (превратиться) в нечто (something) совершенно отличное от ее перво-начальной формы. Мягкие рыхлые (loose) породы могут стать твердыми породами, которые могут противостоять (resist) действию агентов денудации, т. к. они выветриваются не так легко, как мягкие породы.