4.Lexico-semantic grouping in Modern e. Lexicon

The meaning relations that hold within the vocabulary of a language between words themselves are called lexical or sense relations. Lexemes can be grouped together into lexical fields on the bases of shared meaning. The description of meaning, the definition of lexemes is then undertaken within each lexico-semantic field & involves defining each lexeme in relation to the other lexemes in its field. Hence, we distinguish b/n synonymic, antonymic & hyponymic fields.

The term synonymy deals with sameness of meaning, when one & the same meaning is expressed by more than 1 word. Synonyms can be used interchangeably (взаимозаменяемо). e.g. “discover” & “find”: We have found/ discovered the boys hiding in the shed (syn). The definition of synonyms as interchangeable in all contexts is sometimes referred to as strict synonymy. But many linguists doubt if the synonymy of this kind occur at all. When we talk ab synonymy, we are thinking much rather as pairs of words that can substitute for each other in a wide range of contexts, but not necessarily absolutely, or of that, having the same general reference. e.g. big – large, freedom – liberty, first – initial.

Modern definition: synonyms may differ in connotations having the same denotation. e.g. denotation connotation (degree): to like- warm feeling; to admire–warmer; to love- the strongest emotion

Traditional definition (based on the conceptual criteria): Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differ in stylistic characteristics (shades of meaning). e.g. to begin (stylistically neutral), to start (colloquial speech), to commence (bookish).

Each Synonymic group has a dominant element. The synonymic dominant is the most general term. e.g. to look – to stare – to glance – to gaze, to question – to ask – to enquire – to interrogate. The synonymic dominant is characterized by a following features: * high frequency of uses, * broad combine ability (- to be used in combination with various classes of words), * broad general meaning, * lack of connotations.

Classification of synonyms:

1. Ideografic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different shade of meaning (to like, to love, to admire).

2. Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different in stylistic characteristics (sky, heaven).

3. Stylistic colouring may be accompanied by difference in emotional colouring or some other shades of meaning. (head-onion, money-cabbage).

4. contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. (to bear – to suffer – to stand, only when are used in the negative form).

5. Absolute (total) synonyms are words co-insiding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics.(to say-to tell)

Sources of synonyms * Latin / French borrowings. e.g. begin (E): commence (F), initiate (L), fine (E): beautiful (F). * euphemisms “eu” – well, “phemi” – I speak.

It is a way of speaking by which an unpleasant, improper or offensive things are designated by an indirect & milder term. The rules of euphemisms lie in religions taboo, which dictated the avoidance of certain subject, especially death, sex & some bodily functions, devil. Such euphemisms are called superstitious taboos (devil=the Prince of Darkness; God=Lord; to die=pass away).

Euphemisms is a frequent occurrence in modern E. it is spread in many spheres of life – called social taboos (lavatory= lady’s / gentleman’s room, rest room) They may be used not to hurt smb’s feelings: “stupid” – not exactly brilliant, “dirty” – unclear, untidy,…

Antonymy means ‘opposite’+’name’ & deals with oppositness of meaning. Antonyms – 2 or more words of the same category of parts of speech, which have contrasting meanings. They usually appear in pair: good – bad, light – heavy, alive – dead.

Kinds of antonyms: * Gradable. (gradual opposition) They are mostly adj.. e.g. hot – warm – cool – cold, young – middle-aged - old. * Complementary. The denial of one of the member of the pair applies the assertion of the other member. e.g. male – female, dead – alive. * Conversives, or relational antonyms. 1 member of the pair is the converse of the other. They represent 2 opposite perspectives of the same relation. e.g. husb& – wife, to receive – to give (if Mary receives chocolate from Bill, then Bill gives chocolate to Mary).

Hyponymy means ‘under’+’name’. It is another kind of relationship b/n words, which is based on the relations of the inclusion (включение). The meaning of a more specific word (called hyponym) is included in that of another, a more general word (hyperonym).

e.g. flower - hyperonym, rose, tulip, violet– hyponism.

Two words (or more) identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called homonyms. (хомонумс )(meat, meet).

Classification: 1) homonyms proper – words, identical in pronounciation and spelling (bank, ball).

2) homophones – words of the same sound but of different spelling (meet, meat, right, wright).

3) homographs – words of accidentically the same spelling but of different sound. (to wind – wind).

Professor Smirnitsky classified homonyms into two large classes: Full homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech with identical paradigm but different lexical meaning (match, ball, bank). Partial homonyms are divided into 3 subgroups: simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms: words of the same category of points of speech, having one identical form in their paradigm and different lexical meanings. (to found- основывать, found – форма от to find). Complex lexical-grammatical partial homonyms – there are words of different categories of part of speech having one identical form in their paradigm and different lexical meaning. (light – noun, light - adj). partial lexical homonyms they are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. (ask-asked-asked).