- •CONTENTS
- •Preface
- •Contributors
- •1 Introduction to Toxicology
- •1.1 Definition and Scope, Relationship to Other Sciences, and History
- •1.1.2 Relationship to Other Sciences
- •1.1.3 A Brief History of Toxicology
- •1.3 Sources of Toxic Compounds
- •1.3.1 Exposure Classes
- •1.3.2 Use Classes
- •1.4 Movement of Toxicants in the Environment
- •Suggested Reading
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 Cell Culture Techniques
- •2.2.1 Suspension Cell Culture
- •2.2.2 Monolayer Cell Culture
- •2.2.3 Indicators of Toxicity in Cultured Cells
- •2.3 Molecular Techniques
- •2.3.1 Molecular Cloning
- •2.3.2 cDNA and Genomic Libraries
- •2.3.3 Northern and Southern Blot Analyses
- •2.3.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- •2.3.5 Evaluation of Gene Expression, Regulation, and Function
- •2.4 Immunochemical Techniques
- •Suggested Reading
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 General Policies Related to Analytical Laboratories
- •3.2.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
- •3.2.2 QA/QC Manuals
- •3.2.3 Procedural Manuals
- •3.2.4 Analytical Methods Files
- •3.2.5 Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS)
- •3.3 Analytical Measurement System
- •3.3.1 Analytical Instrument Calibration
- •3.3.2 Quantitation Approaches and Techniques
- •3.4 Quality Assurance (QA) Procedures
- •3.5 Quality Control (QC) Procedures
- •3.6 Summary
- •Suggested Reading
- •4 Exposure Classes, Toxicants in Air, Water, Soil, Domestic and Occupational Settings
- •4.1 Air Pollutants
- •4.1.1 History
- •4.1.2 Types of Air Pollutants
- •4.1.3 Sources of Air Pollutants
- •4.1.4 Examples of Air Pollutants
- •4.1.5 Environmental Effects
- •4.2 Water and Soil Pollutants
- •4.2.1 Sources of Water and Soil Pollutants
- •4.2.2 Examples of Pollutants
- •4.3 Occupational Toxicants
- •4.3.1 Regulation of Exposure Levels
- •4.3.2 Routes of Exposure
- •4.3.3 Examples of Industrial Toxicants
- •Suggested Reading
- •5 Classes of Toxicants: Use Classes
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Metals
- •5.2.1 History
- •5.2.2 Common Toxic Mechanisms and Sites of Action
- •5.2.3 Lead
- •5.2.4 Mercury
- •5.2.5 Cadmium
- •5.2.6 Chromium
- •5.2.7 Arsenic
- •5.2.8 Treatment of Metal Poisoning
- •5.3 Agricultural Chemicals (Pesticides)
- •5.3.1 Introduction
- •5.3.3 Organochlorine Insecticides
- •5.3.4 Organophosphorus Insecticides
- •5.3.5 Carbamate Insecticides
- •5.3.6 Botanical Insecticides
- •5.3.7 Pyrethroid Insecticides
- •5.3.8 New Insecticide Classes
- •5.3.9 Herbicides
- •5.3.10 Fungicides
- •5.3.11 Rodenticides
- •5.3.12 Fumigants
- •5.3.13 Conclusions
- •5.4 Food Additives and Contaminants
- •5.5 Toxins
- •5.5.1 History
- •5.5.2 Microbial Toxins
- •5.5.3 Mycotoxins
- •5.5.4 Algal Toxins
- •5.5.5 Plant Toxins
- •5.5.6 Animal Toxins
- •5.6 Solvents
- •5.7 Therapeutic Drugs
- •5.8 Drugs of Abuse
- •5.9 Combustion Products
- •5.10 Cosmetics
- •Suggested Reading
- •6 Absorption and Distribution of Toxicants
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.2 Cell Membranes
- •6.3 Mechanisms of Transport
- •6.3.1 Passive Diffusion
- •6.4 Physicochemical Properties Relevant to Diffusion
- •6.4.1 Ionization
- •6.5 Routes of Absorption
- •6.5.1 Extent of Absorption
- •6.5.2 Gastrointestinal Absorption
- •6.5.3 Dermal Absorption
- •6.5.4 Respiratory Penetration
- •6.6 Toxicant Distribution
- •6.6.1 Physicochemical Properties and Protein Binding
- •6.7 Toxicokinetics
- •Suggested Reading
- •7 Metabolism of Toxicants
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2 Phase I Reactions
- •7.2.4 Nonmicrosomal Oxidations
- •7.2.5 Cooxidation by Cyclooxygenases
- •7.2.6 Reduction Reactions
- •7.2.7 Hydrolysis
- •7.2.8 Epoxide Hydration
- •7.2.9 DDT Dehydrochlorinase
- •7.3 Phase II Reactions
- •7.3.1 Glucuronide Conjugation
- •7.3.2 Glucoside Conjugation
- •7.3.3 Sulfate Conjugation
- •7.3.4 Methyltransferases
- •7.3.7 Acylation
- •7.3.8 Phosphate Conjugation
- •Suggested Reading
- •8 Reactive Metabolites
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Activation Enzymes
- •8.3 Nature and Stability of Reactive Metabolites
- •8.4 Fate of Reactive Metabolites
- •8.4.1 Binding to Cellular Macromolecules
- •8.4.2 Lipid Peroxidation
- •8.4.3 Trapping and Removal: Role of Glutathione
- •8.5 Factors Affecting Toxicity of Reactive Metabolites
- •8.5.1 Levels of Activating Enzymes
- •8.5.2 Levels of Conjugating Enzymes
- •8.5.3 Levels of Cofactors or Conjugating Chemicals
- •8.6 Examples of Activating Reactions
- •8.6.1 Parathion
- •8.6.2 Vinyl Chloride
- •8.6.3 Methanol
- •8.6.5 Carbon Tetrachloride
- •8.6.8 Acetaminophen
- •8.6.9 Cycasin
- •8.7 Future Developments
- •Suggested Reading
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Nutritional Effects
- •9.2.1 Protein
- •9.2.2 Carbohydrates
- •9.2.3 Lipids
- •9.2.4 Micronutrients
- •9.2.5 Starvation and Dehydration
- •9.2.6 Nutritional Requirements in Xenobiotic Metabolism
- •9.3 Physiological Effects
- •9.3.1 Development
- •9.3.2 Gender Differences
- •9.3.3 Hormones
- •9.3.4 Pregnancy
- •9.3.5 Disease
- •9.3.6 Diurnal Rhythms
- •9.4 Comparative and Genetic Effects
- •9.4.1 Variations Among Taxonomic Groups
- •9.4.2 Selectivity
- •9.4.3 Genetic Differences
- •9.5 Chemical Effects
- •9.5.1 Inhibition
- •9.5.2 Induction
- •9.5.3 Biphasic Effects: Inhibition and Induction
- •9.6 Environmental Effects
- •9.7 General Summary and Conclusions
- •Suggested Reading
- •10 Elimination of Toxicants
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Transport
- •10.3 Renal Elimination
- •10.4 Hepatic Elimination
- •10.4.2 Active Transporters of the Bile Canaliculus
- •10.5 Respiratory Elimination
- •10.6 Conclusion
- •Suggested Reading
- •11 Acute Toxicity
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Acute Exposure and Effect
- •11.3 Dose-response Relationships
- •11.4 Nonconventional Dose-response Relationships
- •11.5 Mechanisms of Acute Toxicity
- •11.5.1 Narcosis
- •11.5.2 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition
- •11.5.3 Ion Channel Modulators
- •11.5.4 Inhibitors of Cellular Respiration
- •Suggested Reading
- •12 Chemical Carcinogenesis
- •12.1 General Aspects of Cancer
- •12.2 Human Cancer
- •12.2.1 Causes, Incidence, and Mortality Rates of Human Cancer
- •12.2.2 Known Human Carcinogens
- •12.3 Classes of Agents Associated with Carcinogenesis
- •12.3.2 Epigenetic Agents
- •12.4 General Aspects of Chemical Carcinogenesis
- •12.5 Initiation-Promotion Model for Chemical Carcinogenesis
- •12.6 Metabolic Activation of Chemical Carcinogens and DNA Adduct Formation
- •12.7 Oncogenes
- •12.8 Tumor Suppressor Genes
- •12.8.1 Inactivation of Tumor Suppressor Genes
- •12.8.2 p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene
- •12.9 General Aspects of Mutagenicity
- •12.10 Usefulness and Limitations of Mutagenicity Assays for the Identification of Carcinogens
- •Suggested Reading
- •13 Teratogenesis
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Principles of Teratology
- •13.3 Mammalian Embryology Overview
- •13.4 Critical Periods
- •13.5 Historical Teratogens
- •13.5.1 Thalidomide
- •13.5.2 Accutane (Isotetrinoin)
- •13.5.3 Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
- •13.5.4 Alcohol
- •13.6 Testing Protocols
- •13.6.1 FDA Guidelines for Reproduction Studies for Safety Evaluation of Drugs for Human Use
- •13.6.3 Alternative Test Methods
- •13.7 Conclusions
- •Suggested Reading
- •14 Hepatotoxicity
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.1.1 Liver Structure
- •14.1.2 Liver Function
- •14.2 Susceptibility of the Liver
- •14.3 Types of Liver Injury
- •14.3.1 Fatty Liver
- •14.3.2 Necrosis
- •14.3.3 Apoptosis
- •14.3.4 Cholestasis
- •14.3.5 Cirrhosis
- •14.3.6 Hepatitis
- •14.3.7 Oxidative Stress
- •14.3.8 Carcinogenesis
- •14.4 Mechanisms of Hepatotoxicity
- •14.5 Examples of Hepatotoxicants
- •14.5.1 Carbon Tetrachloride
- •14.5.2 Ethanol
- •14.5.3 Bromobenzene
- •14.5.4 Acetaminophen
- •14.6 Metabolic Activation of Hepatotoxicants
- •Suggested Reading
- •15 Nephrotoxicity
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.1.1 Structure of the Renal System
- •15.1.2 Function of the Renal System
- •15.2 Susceptibility of the Renal System
- •15.3 Examples of Nephrotoxicants
- •15.3.1 Metals
- •15.3.2 Aminoglycosides
- •15.3.3 Amphotericin B
- •15.3.4 Chloroform
- •15.3.5 Hexachlorobutadiene
- •Suggested Reading
- •16 Toxicology of the Nervous System
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 The Nervous system
- •16.2.1 The Neuron
- •16.2.2 Neurotransmitters and their Receptors
- •16.2.3 Glial Cells
- •16.3 Toxicant Effects on the Nervous System
- •16.3.1 Structural Effects of Toxicants on Neurons
- •16.3.2 Effects of Toxicants on Other Cells
- •16.4 Neurotoxicity Testing
- •16.4.1 In vivo Tests of Human Exposure
- •16.4.2 In vivo Tests of Animal Exposure
- •16.4.3 In vitro Neurochemical and Histopathological End Points
- •16.5 Summary
- •Suggested Reading
- •17 Endocrine System
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.2 Endocrine System
- •17.2.1 Nuclear Receptors
- •17.3 Endocrine Disruption
- •17.3.1 Hormone Receptor Agonists
- •17.3.2 Hormone Receptor Antagonists
- •17.3.3 Organizational versus Activational Effects of Endocrine Toxicants
- •17.3.4 Inhibitors of Hormone Synthesis
- •17.3.5 Inducers of Hormone Clearance
- •17.3.6 Hormone Displacement from Binding Proteins
- •17.4 Incidents of Endocrine Toxicity
- •17.4.1 Organizational Toxicity
- •17.4.2 Activational Toxicity
- •17.4.3 Hypothyroidism
- •17.5 Conclusion
- •Suggested Reading
- •18 Respiratory Toxicity
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.1.1 Anatomy
- •18.1.2 Cell Types
- •18.1.3 Function
- •18.2 Susceptibility of the Respiratory System
- •18.2.1 Nasal
- •18.2.2 Lung
- •18.3 Types of Toxic Response
- •18.3.1 Irritation
- •18.3.2 Cell Necrosis
- •18.3.3 Fibrosis
- •18.3.4 Emphysema
- •18.3.5 Allergic Responses
- •18.3.6 Cancer
- •18.3.7 Mediators of Toxic Responses
- •18.4 Examples of Lung Toxicants Requiring Activation
- •18.4.1 Introduction
- •18.4.2 Monocrotaline
- •18.4.3 Ipomeanol
- •18.4.4 Paraquat
- •18.5 Defense Mechanisms
- •Suggested Reading
- •19 Immunotoxicity
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 The Immune System
- •19.3 Immune Suppression
- •19.4 Classification of Immune-Mediated Injury (Hypersensitivity)
- •19.5 Effects of Chemicals on Allergic Disease
- •19.5.1 Allergic Contact Dermatitis
- •19.5.2 Respiratory Allergens
- •19.5.3 Adjuvants
- •19.6 Emerging Issues: Food Allergies, Autoimmunity, and the Developing Immune System
- •Suggested Reading
- •20 Reproductive System
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.2 Male Reproductive Physiology
- •20.3 Mechanisms and Targets of Male Reproductive Toxicants
- •20.3.1 General Mechanisms
- •20.3.2 Effects on Germ Cells
- •20.3.3 Effects on Spermatogenesis and Sperm Quality
- •20.3.4 Effects on Sexual Behavior
- •20.3.5 Effects on Endocrine Function
- •20.4 Female Reproductive Physiology
- •20.5 Mechanisms and Targets of Female Reproductive Toxicants
- •20.5.1 Tranquilizers, Narcotics, and Social Drugs
- •20.5.2 Endocrine Disruptors (EDs)
- •20.5.3 Effects on Germ Cells
- •20.5.4 Effects on the Ovaries and Uterus
- •20.5.5 Effects on Sexual Behavior
- •Suggested Reading
- •21 Toxicity Testing
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Experimental Administration of Toxicants
- •21.2.1 Introduction
- •21.2.2 Routes of Administration
- •21.3 Chemical and Physical Properties
- •21.4 Exposure and Environmental Fate
- •21.5 In vivo Tests
- •21.5.1 Acute and Subchronic Toxicity Tests
- •21.5.2 Chronic Tests
- •21.5.3 Reproductive Toxicity and Teratogenicity
- •21.5.4 Special Tests
- •21.6 In vitro and Other Short-Term Tests
- •21.6.1 Introduction
- •21.6.2 Prokaryote Mutagenicity
- •21.6.3 Eukaryote Mutagenicity
- •21.6.4 DNA Damage and Repair
- •21.6.5 Chromosome Aberrations
- •21.6.6 Mammalian Cell Transformation
- •21.6.7 General Considerations and Testing Sequences
- •21.7 Ecological Effects
- •21.7.1 Laboratory Tests
- •21.7.2 Simulated Field Tests
- •21.7.3 Field Tests
- •21.8 Risk Analysis
- •21.9 The Future of Toxicity Testing
- •Suggested Reading
- •22 Forensic and Clinical Toxicology
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 Foundations of Forensic Toxicology
- •22.3 Courtroom Testimony
- •22.4.1 Documentation Practices
- •22.4.2 Considerations for Forensic Toxicological Analysis
- •22.4.3 Drug Concentrations and Distribution
- •22.5 Laboratory Analyses
- •22.5.1 Colorimetric Screening Tests
- •22.5.2 Thermal Desorption
- •22.5.6 Enzymatic Immunoassay
- •22.6 Analytical Schemes for Toxicant Detection
- •22.7 Clinical Toxicology
- •22.7.1 History Taking
- •22.7.2 Basic Operating Rules in the Treatment of Toxicosis
- •22.7.3 Approaches to Selected Toxicoses
- •Suggested Reading
- •23 Prevention of Toxicity
- •23.1 Introduction
- •23.2 Legislation and Regulation
- •23.2.1 Federal Government
- •23.2.2 State Governments
- •23.2.3 Legislation and Regulation in Other Countries
- •23.3 Prevention in Different Environments
- •23.3.1 Home
- •23.3.2 Workplace
- •23.3.3 Pollution of Air, Water, and Land
- •23.4 Education
- •Suggested Reading
- •24 Human Health Risk Assessment
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Risk Assessment Methods
- •24.2.2 Exposure Assessment
- •24.2.3 Dose Response and Risk Characterization
- •24.3 Noncancer Risk Assessment
- •24.3.1 Default Uncertainty and Modifying Factors
- •24.3.2 Derivation of Developmental Toxicant RfD
- •24.3.3 Determination of RfD and RfC of Naphthalene with the NOAEL Approach
- •24.3.4 Benchmark Dose Approach
- •24.3.5 Determination of BMD and BMDL for ETU
- •24.3.6 Quantifying Risk for Noncarcinogenic Effects: Hazard Quotient
- •24.3.7 Chemical Mixtures
- •24.4 Cancer Risk Assessment
- •24.5 PBPK Modeling
- •Suggested Reading
- •25 Analytical Methods in Toxicology
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.2 Chemical and Physical Methods
- •25.2.1 Sampling
- •25.2.2 Experimental Studies
- •25.2.3 Forensic Studies
- •25.2.4 Sample Preparation
- •25.2.6 Spectroscopy
- •25.2.7 Other Analytical Methods
- •Suggested Reading
- •26 Basics of Environmental Toxicology
- •26.1 Introduction
- •26.2 Environmental Persistence
- •26.2.1 Abiotic Degradation
- •26.2.2 Biotic Degradation
- •26.2.3 Nondegradative Elimination Processes
- •26.3 Bioaccumulation
- •26.4 Toxicity
- •26.4.1 Acute Toxicity
- •26.4.2 Mechanisms of Acute Toxicity
- •26.4.3 Chronic Toxicity
- •26.4.5 Abiotic and Biotic Interactions
- •26.5 Conclusion
- •Suggested Reading
- •27.1 Introduction
- •27.2 Sources of Toxicants to the Environment
- •27.3 Transport Processes
- •27.3.1 Advection
- •27.3.2 Diffusion
- •27.4 Equilibrium Partitioning
- •27.5 Transformation Processes
- •27.5.1 Reversible Reactions
- •27.5.2 Irreversible Reactions
- •27.6 Environmental Fate Models
- •Suggested Reading
- •28 Environmental Risk Assessment
- •28.1 Introduction
- •28.2 Formulating the Problem
- •28.2.1 Selecting Assessment End Points
- •28.2.2 Developing Conceptual Models
- •28.2.3 Selecting Measures
- •28.3 Analyzing Exposure and Effects Information
- •28.3.1 Characterizing Exposure
- •28.3.2 Characterizing Ecological Effects
- •28.4 Characterizing Risk
- •28.4.1 Estimating Risk
- •28.4.2 Describing Risk
- •28.5 Managing Risk
- •Suggested Reading
- •29 Future Considerations for Environmental and Human Health
- •29.1 Introduction
- •29.2 Risk Management
- •29.3 Risk Assessment
- •29.4 Hazard and Exposure Assessment
- •29.5 In vivo Toxicity
- •29.6 In vitro Toxicity
- •29.7 Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology
- •29.8 Development of Selective Toxicants
- •Glossary
- •Index
442 |
ANALYTICAL METHODS IN TOXICOLOGY |
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Table 25.1 Typical Protocols for Analysis of Toxicants |
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|
Toxicant |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Step |
|
Arsenic |
TCDD |
Chlorpyrifos |
|
|
|
|
|
Sampling |
Grind solid sample |
Grind solid sample or |
Grind solid sample or |
|
|
|
homogenize |
homogenize tissue to |
homogenize tissue to |
|
|
tissue to |
homogeneity; |
homogeneity; subsample |
|
|
homogeneity; |
subsample |
Soxhlet extract with |
|
|
subsample |
|
hexane:acetone (1:1) |
Extraction |
Dry ash; redissolve |
Extract with ethanol and |
Remove co-extractives on |
|
and |
|
residue; generate |
KOH; remove |
Florisil using ether: |
cleanup |
arsine and absorb |
saponified lipids; |
petroleum ether |
|
|
|
into solution |
column |
|
|
|
|
chromatography on |
|
|
|
|
H2S04/silica gel |
|
|
|
|
followed by basic |
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|
|
|
alumina and then by |
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|
|
|
AgN03/silica gel |
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|
|
|
followed by basic |
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|
|
|
alumina; reverse-phase |
|
|
|
|
HPLC |
|
Analysis |
|
AA spectroscopy |
GC/MS |
GC/NPD or FPD |
Source: Modified from R. J. Everson and F. W. Oehme, Analytical Toxicology Manual, New York: KS American College of Veterinary Toxicologists, 1981.
Note: TLC, thin-layer chromatography; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; GLC or GC, gas-liquid chromatography; AA, atomic adsorption; NPD, nitrogen phosphorus detector; FPD, flame photometric detector; GC/MS, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
This chapter is concerned with the sampling, isolation, separation, and measurement of toxicants, including bioassay methods. Bioassay does not measure toxic effects; rather, it is the quantitation of the relative effect of a substance on a test organism as compared with the effect of a standard preparation of a basic toxicant. Although bioassay has many drawbacks, particularly lack of specificity, it can provide a rapid analysis of the relative potency of toxicants in environmental samples.
25.2CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL METHODS
25.2.1Sampling
Even with the most sophisticated analytical equipment available, the resulting data are only as representative as the samples from which the results are derived. This is particularly true for environmental samples. In sampling, care must be taken to ensure that the result meets the objectives of the study. Often special attention to sampling procedures is necessary. Sampling accomplishes a number of objectives, depending on the type of area being studied. In environmental areas (e.g., wilderness regions, lakes, rivers) sampling can provide data not only on the concentration of pollutants but also on the extent of contamination. In urban areas, sampling can provide information on the types of pollutants, to which one is exposed, by dermal contact, by inhalation, or by ingestion over a given period of time.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL METHODS |
443 |
In industrial areas, hazardous conditions can be detected and sources of pollution can be identified. Sampling is used in the process of designing pollution controls and can provide a chronicle of the changes in operational conditions as controls are implemented. Another important application of sampling in industrial areas in the United States is the documentation of compliance with existing Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) regulations. The many methods available for sampling the environment can be divided into categories of air, soil, water, and tissue sampling. The fourth category is of particular interest in experimental and forensic studies.
Air. Most pollutants entering the atmosphere come from fuel combustion, industrial processes, and solid waste disposal. Additional miscellaneous sources, such as nuclear explosions, forest fires, dusts, volcanoes, natural gaseous emissions, agricultural burning, and pesticide drift, contribute to the level of atmospheric pollution. To affect terrestrial animals and plants, particulate pollutants must be in a size range that allows them to enter the body and remain there; that is, they must be in an aerosol (defined as an airborne suspension of liquid droplets) or on solid particles small enough to possess a low settling velocity. Suspensions can be classified as liquids including fogs (small particles) and mists (large particles) produced from atomization, condensation, or entrapment of liquids by gases; and solids including dusts, fumes, and smoke produced by crushing, metal vaporization, and combustion of organic materials, respectively.
At rest, an adult human inhales 6 to 8 L of air each minute (1 L = O.OO1 m3) and, during an 8-hour workday, can inhale from 5 to 20 m3 depending on the level of physical activity. The optimum size range for aerosol particles to get into the lungs and remain there is 0.5 to 5.0 µm. As instrumentation used to collect atmospheric dust have become more precise, particulate matter (PM) in the size range of 2.5 to 10 µm have come under increasing scrutiny, because many potential toxicants are adsorbed to their surfaces. These particles are inhaled and will remain in the lungs and allow the compounds to pass into the bloodstream.
Thus air samplers have been miniaturized and adsorbents have been developed to collect either particulate matter in the size range most detrimental to humans or to “trap” organic toxicants from air. An air sampler generally consists of an inlet to direct air through a filter to entrap particles that might be of interest (e.g., dust); through the adsorbent, which collects organic vapors, a flowmeter and valve to calibrate airflow, and a pump to pull air through the system. Personnel samplers are run by battery power and can be attached to an individual’s clothing, thus allowing continual monitoring while performing assigned tasks in the work environment. This allows the estimation of individual exposure.
Many air samplers use various types of filters to collect solid particulate matter, such as asbestos, which is collected on glass fiber filters with pores 20 µm or less in diameter. Membrane filters with pores 0.01 to 10 µm in diameter are used to collect dusts and silica. Liquid-containing collectors, called impingers, are used to trap mineral dusts and pesticides. Mineral dusts are collected in large impingers that have flow rates of 10 to 50 L of air per minute, and insecticides can be collected in smaller “midget” impingers that handle flows of 2 to 4.5 L of air per minute. Depending on the pollutant being sought, the entrapping liquid might be distilled water, alcohol, ethylene glycol, hexylene glycol (2-methyl, 2,4-pentane diol) or some other solvent. Because of the ease of handling and the rapid desorption of compounds, polyurethane foam (PUF)
444 ANALYTICAL METHODS IN TOXICOLOGY
has become a popular trapping medium for pesticides and is rapidly replacing the use of midget impingers. A large volume air sampler has been developed by the US EPA for detection of pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Air flows at rates of around 225.0 L/min are drawn through a PUF pad, and the insecticides and PCBs are trapped in the foam. Small glass tubes approximately 7.0 × 0.5 cm in diameter containing activated charcoal are used to entrap organic vapors in air.
A number of specialty companies have and are continuing to develop adsorbents to collect organic molecules from air samples. Industrial chemicals resulting, from syntheses or used in production processes, pesticides and emissions from exhaust towers are monitored routinely with commercially available adsorbents. Personnel monitoring can be accomplished without a pump using a system composed of a porous membrane through which air diffuses and compounds of interest are collected by an adsorbent.
Minute quantities of gaseous pollutants (e.g., CO2, HNO3), are monitored with direct reading instruments, using infrared spectroscopy, and have been in use for a number of years. These instruments passively monitor large areas and rely on extensive statistical evaluations to remove substances like water vapor, which can mask the small quantities of these pollutants. Research into the millimeter/submillimeter area of spectroscopy coupled with Russian technologies is leading to the development of a direct reading instrument that will quantitate any atmospheric gas or a mixture of gases containing a dipole moment within 10 seconds, regardless of the presence or quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere. Such devices are expected to be commercially available within the next five years.
Soil. When environmental pollutants are deposited on land areas, their subsequent behavior is complicated by a series of simultaneous interactions with organic and inorganic components, existing liquid-gas phases, microscopic organisms, and other soil constituents. Depending on the chemical composition and physical structure, pollutants might remain in one location for varying periods of time, be absorbed into plant tissue, or move through the soil profile from random molecular motion. Movement is also affected by mass flow as a result of external forces such as the pollutant being dissolved in or suspended in water or adsorbed onto both inorganic and organic soil components. Thus sampling for pollutants in soils is complex and statistical approaches must be taken to ensure representative samples.
To obtain such samples, the chemical and physical characteristics of the site(s) must be considered, as well as possible reactions between the compound(s) of interest and soil components and the degree of variability (i.e., variation in soil profiles) within the sampling site. With these data, the site(s) can then be divided into homogeneous areas and the required number of samples can be collected. The required number of samples depends on the functions of variance and degree of accuracy. Once the correct procedure has been determined, sampling can proceed.
Many types of soil samplers are available, but coring devices are preferable because this collection method allows determination of a pollutant’s vertical distribution. These devices can be either stainless steel tubes, varying in both diameter from 2.5 to 7.6 cm and length from 60 to 100 cm (hand operated). Large, mechanically operated boring tubes, 200 cm in length are also used. It is possible to sample to uniform depths with these devices, and one can subdivide the cores into specific depths (e.g., 0–7.6 cm, 7.6–15.2 cm, etc.) to determine movement. Another type of coring device is a wheel to which are attached tubes so that large numbers of small subsamples can be collected,
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thus allowing a more uniform sampling over a given area. Soils from specific depths can be collected using a large diameter cylinder (ca. 25 cm) that incorporates a blade to slice a core of soil after placing the sampler at the desired depth.
Water. Many factors must be considered to obtain representative samples of water. The most important are the pollutant and the point at which it entered the aquatic environment. Pollutants can be contributed by agricultural, industrial, municipal, or other sources, such as spills from wrecks or train derailments. The prevailing wind direction and speed, the velocity of stream or river flow, temperature, thermal and salinity stratification, and sediment content are other important factors.
Two questions, where to monitor or sample and how to obtain representative samples are both important. Surface water samples often are collected by automatic sampling devices controlled by a variety of sensors. The simplest method of collecting water is the “grab” technique, whereby a container is lowered into the water, rinsed, filled, and capped. Specialized samplers frequently are used to obtain water at greater depths.
With the implementation in the United States of the Clean Water Act of 1977, continuous monitoring is required to obtain data for management decisions. A number of continuous monitoring wells are in operation throughout the United States. Sampling from potable wells can be accomplished by collecting from an existing tap, either in the home or from an outside fixture. However, multistep processes are required to collect samples from wells used to monitor pollutants. Standing water must be removed after measuring the water table elevation. If wells are used to monitor suspected pollutants, two criteria are used to determine the amount of water removed prior to sampling: conductivity and pH. Removal of a specific number of well volumes by bailers or pumps is done until both pH and conductivity are constant. A triple-rinsed bottle is then used to collect the sample.
Because large numbers of samples can be generated by such devices, collectors containing membranes with small pores (e.g., 45.0 µm) to entrap metal-containing pollutants, cartridges containing ion-exchange resins, or long-chain hydrocarbons (e.g., C18) bonded to silica to adsorb organic pollutants. These devices often are used to diminish the number and bulk of the samples by allowing several liters of water to pass through and leave only the pollutants entrapped in a small cylinder or container. In addition disk technologies use a filter containing a Teflon matrix in which C18 hydrocarbon chains are embedded to concentrate pollutants as water is passed through the membrane. Polar solvents (e.g., methanol) are used to elute them from the disk.
Once samples have been collected, they should be frozen immediately in solid CO2 (dry ice) and returned to the laboratory. If they are not analyzed at that time, they should be frozen at temperatures of −20◦C or lower. Sufficient head space must be left in the container to prevent breakage.
Tissues. When environmental areas are suspected of being contaminated, surveys of plants and animals are conducted. Many of the surveys, conducted during hunting and fishing seasons by federal and state laboratories, determine the number of animals killed and often, organs and other tissues are removed for analysis of suspected contaminants. Sampling is conducted randomly throughout an area, and the analyses can help determine the concentration, extent of contamination within a given species and areas of contamination.
Many environmental pollutants are known to concentrate in bone, certain organs, or specific tissues (e.g., adipose). These organs are removed from recently killed animals
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