6.Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis)

Aposiopesis is a-device, which dictionaries define as “A stopping short for rhetorical effect.” This is true. But definition is too general to disclose the stylistic functions of the device.

In the written variety, a break-in-the-narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard and fast distinction between break-in-the-narrative as a typical feature of lively colloquial language and as a specific stylistic device.

In the following example the implication of the aposiopesis is a warning:

“ If you continue your intemperate way of living, in six months’ time...”

In the sentence:

“You just come home or I’ll...”

the implication is a threat. The second example shows that without a context the implication can only be vague. But when one known that an angry father to his son said the words over the telephone the implication becomes apparent.

Break-in-the-narrative has a strong degree of predictability, which is ensured by the structure of the sentence. As a stylistic device it is used in complex sentences, in particular in conditional sentences, the if-clause being given in full and the second part only implied.

Sometimes a break in the narrative is caused by euphemistic considerations-unwillingness to name a thing on the ground of its being offensive to the ear, for example:

“Then, mamma, I hardly like to let the words cross my lips, but they have wicked, wicked attractions out there-like dancing girls that-that charm snakes and dance without-Miss Moir with downcast eyes, broke off significantly and blushes, whilst the down on her upper lip quivered modestly.” (Cronin)

Break-in-the-narrative is a device which, on the one hand, offers a number of variants in deciphering the implication and, on the other , is highly predictable. The problem of implication is, as it were, a crucial one in stylistics.What is implied sometimes outweighs what is expressed. In other stylistic devices the degree of implication is not so high as in break-in-the-narrative. A sudden break in the narrative will inevitably focus the attention on what is left unsaid. Therefore the interrelation between what is given and what is new becomes more significant, in as much as the given is what is said and the new - what is left unsaid. There is a phrase in colloquial English which has become very familiar:

“Good intentions but-”

The implication here is that nothing has come of what it was planned to accomplish.

Aposiopesis is a stylistic device in which the role of the intonation implied cannot be over-estimated. The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance.

7.Question-in-the-Narrative

Questions, being both structurally and semantically one of the types of the sentence, are asked by one person and expected to be answered by another. This is the main, and the most characteristic poetry of the question, i.e. it exists as a syntactical unit of language to bear this particular function in communication. Essentially, questions belong to the spoken language and presuppose the presence of an interlocutor, that is, they are commonly encountered in dialogue. The questioner is presumed not to know the answer.

Question-in-the-narrative change the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. Aquestion in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author.

It becomes akin to a parenthetical statement with strong emotional implications. Here are some cases of question-in-the-narrative taken from Byron’s “Don Juan”:

1) “For what is left the poet here?

For Greeks a blush-for Greece a tear.”

2) “And starting, she awoke, and what to view?

Oh, Powers of Heaven. What dark eye meets she there?

Tis-’tis her father’s-fix’d upon the pair.”

As is seen from these examples, the question asked, unlike rhetorical questions, do not contain statements. But being answered by one who knows the answer, they assume a semi-exclamatory nature, as in ‘what to view?’

Sometimes question-in-the-narrative gives the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader. For example:

“Scrooge knew he was dead?Of course he did.How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were parthers for I don’t know how many years.” (Dickens)

Question-in-the-narrative is very often used in oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical style-to induse the directs reactions to the connect of the speech. Questions here chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering. They also give the listeners time to absorb what has been said, and prepare for the next point.

Question-in-the-narrative may also remain unanswered, as in:

“How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end?” (Norris)

These sentences show a gradual transition to rhetorical questions. There are only hints of the possible answers. Indeed, the first and the second questions suggest that the existing of affairs should be put an end to and that we should not suffer any longer. The third and the fourth questions suggest that the orator himself could not find a solution to the problem.

8.Represented Speech

There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: a)repetition of exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speech), b)conversation of exact utterance into the relater’s mode of expression (indirect speech) and c)representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author’s words (represented speech)

To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author’s language uttered represented speech, and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character from the author’s word. Actually, direct speech is a quotation. Therefore it is always introduced by a verb like say, utter, declare, reply, exclaim, shout, cry, yell, gasp, babble, chuckle, murmur, sigh, call, beg, implore, comfort, assure, protest, object, command, admit and others. All these words help to indicate the intonation with which the sentence was actually uttered. Direct speech is always marked by inverted commas, as any quotation is. Here is an example:

“You want your money back,I suppose,” said George with a sneer.

“Of course I do - I always did, didn’t I?” says Dobbin.

(Thackeray)

Direct speech is sometimes used in the publicistic style of language as a quotation. The introductory words in this case are usually the following: as... has it, according to... and the like.

In the belles-lettres style direct speech is used to depict a character through his speech.

Direct speech can be viewed as a stylistic device only its setting in the midst of the author addresses the reader, we cannot classify the utterance as a direct speech. Direct speech is only the speech of a character in a piece of emotive prose.

We have indirect speech when the actual words of a character, as it were, pass though the author’s mouth in the course of his narrative and in this process undergo certain changes. The intonation of indirect speech is even and does not differ from the rest of the author’s narrative. The graphical substitues for the intonation give way to lexical unit which describe the intonation pattern. Sometimes indirect speech takes the form of a precise in which only the main points of the actual utterance are given. Thus, for instance, in the following passage:

“Marshalasked the crowd to disperse and urged responsible diggers to prevent any disturbance which would prolong the tragic force of the rush for which the publication of inaccurate was chiefly responsible.”(Katherine Prichard) Represented speech exist in two varieties: 1)uttered represented speech and 2)unuttered represented speech.

a) Uttered represented speech

Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structureof the utterance does not change. For example:

“Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could.”(Dreiser)

An interesting example of three ways of representing an actual speech is to be seen in a conversation between Old Jolyon and June in Galsworthy’s “Man of Property.”

“Old Jolyon was on the alert at once .Was n’t the “man of property going to live in his new house, then? He never alluded to Soames now but under this title.

“No”-June said”- “he was not; she knew that she was not!”

How did she know?

She could not tell him , but she knew . She nearly for certain. It was most unlikely; circumtances had changed!” The first sentence is the author’s speech. In the second sentence ‘Wasn’t the “man...” there is uttered represented speech:the actual speech must have been’Isn’t the...’. This sentence is followed by one from the author: ‘He never...’.

Then again comes uttered represented speech marked off in inverted commas, which is not usual. The direct speech ‘No-’, the introductory ‘June said’ and the following inverted commas make the sentence half direct half uttered represented speech. The next sentence ‘How did she know?’ and the following one are clear-cut models of uttered represented speech: all the peculiarities of direct speech are preserved, i.e. the repetition of ‘she knew’, the colloquial ‘nearly for certain’, the absence of any connective between the last two sentence and, finally, the mark of exclamation at the end of passage. And yet the tenses and pronouns here show that the actual utterance passes through the author’s mouth.

b) Unuttered or Inner Represented Speech

As has often been pointed out, language has two functions: the communicative and the expressive. The communicative function serves to convey one’s thoughts, volitions, emotions and orders to the mind of a second person. The expressive function serves to shape one’s thought and emotions into language forms. This second function is believed to be the only way of materializing thoughts and emotions. Without language forms thought is not yet thought but only something being sharped as thought. The thoughts and feelings going on in one’s mind and reflesting some previous experience are called inner speech.

Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character. That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions, breaks,and other means of conveying feelings, he can give vent to those strong emotions which he usually keeps hidden. Here is an example from Galsworthy’s “Man of property”:

“His nervousness about this disclosure irritated him profoundly;

she had no business to make him feel like that - a wife and a husband being one person. She had not looked at him once since they sat down, and he wondered what on earth she had been thinking about all the time. It was hard, when a man worked hard as he did, making money for her-yes and with an ache in his heart-that she should sit there, looking-looking as if she saw the walls of the room closing in. It was enough to make a man get up and leave the table.”

Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, is usually introduced by verbs of mental perception, as think,meditate,feel,occur (an idea occured to...), wonder, ask, tell oneself, understand and the like. For example:

“Over and over he was asking himself: would she receive him? would she recognize him? what she should say to her?”

“Why weren’t things going well between them? he wondered.”

Control questions:

1. What is Repetition? Name types of repetition.

2. What are Enumeration and Gradation?

3. What is Antithesis?

4. Particular use of colloquial constructions: Ellipsis

5. What is Break-in-the-narrative (aposiopesis)

6. What is Question-in-the-narrative?

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. GalperinI.R.Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

8. Ullman, Stephen, Words and their use. Frederich Muller, Ldn. 1975, p. 107

9.Verhaar, John W.M., Proceeding of the Ninth international congress of linguists, The Hague, 1986, p. 378

10.Foster, Brian, The changing English language, Penguin books, 1990, p.12

11.Barfield, Owen. Poetic diction. Lnd. 1979, 2nd. ed. p. 628

Lecture 10 Extra-Linguistic Expressive means. The notion of Paralanguage

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of Paralanguage

Plan:

1. The notion of Paralanguage

2. Visual Expressive Means (Graphetics and Graphology)

3. Kinesics

Recommendations:

1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.

1.Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of speech – such as vocal pitch, intonation, and speaking tempo – that can be used to communicate attitudes, convey emotion, or modify meaning. In simple terms, paralanguage can be thought of as how something is said rather than what is said. The study of paralanguage is known as “paralinguistics.” Early work on paralanguage emerged in the 1950s with the pioneering research of George Trager and Henry Lee Smith ( Hall & Trager 1953 ; Trager 1958 ), who noted that kinesics (body movements) and vocalics (voice quality and other aspects of the voice) are part of the language system. Building on their work, other researchers focused on vocal pauses (hems, ahs, coughs), speaking rate, volume, and quality ( Pittenger et al. 1960 ). Since that time, paralanguage has been studied and applied to numerous domains including psychiatry, child development, courtship (→  Interpersonal Attraction ), and deception (→  Deceptive Message Production ). The idea that how one says something may impact the meaning of what is said is a familiar concept. Most often, humans use paralanguage purposefully, though perhaps subconsciously, as many of these patterns have been learned since infancy. For example, when something is said sarcastically, the voice may take on a negative tone to accompany a positive word or phrase, or particular intonations may modify .

Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elementsofcommunicationused to modify meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressedconsciouslyorunconsciously, and it includes thepitch,volume, and, in some cases,intonationofspeech. Sometimes the definition is restricted tovocally-produced sounds. The study is known asparalinguistics.

The term 'paralanguage' should not be confused with kinesics, or the study of body language. While kinesics is non-linguistic, it is not necessarily related to vocal or written language: paralanguage is. Paralinguistic information, because it is phenomenal, belongs to the external speech signal (Ferdinand de Saussure'sparole) but not to the arbitrary conventional code of language (Saussure's langue).

The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice that can be modulated. This voice must have some properties, and all the properties of a voice as such are paralinguistic. However, the distinction linguistic vs. paralinguistic applies not only to speech but to writingandsign languageas well, and it is not bound to anysensory modality. Evenvocal languagehas some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can beseen (lip reading,McGurk effect), and evenfelt, e.g. by the Tadomamethod.

Linguistic aspects

Ordinary phonetic transcriptionsof utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of current research.

Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its prosody, are paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread phenomenon of this kind is described byJohn Ohalaas the "frequency code".^[4] This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to secondary meanings such as 'harmless', 'submissive', 'unassertive', which are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as 'dangerous', 'dominant', and 'assertive' are associated with largeness. In most languages, the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is reasonable to assume that it has phylogenetically given rise to the sexual dimorphism that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average female and male adults.

In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and instant messaging, paralinguistic elements can be displayed byemoticons, font and color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to misunderstandings.

C. Paralanguistics (G.L. Trager)

1. Concerned with the "boarderline area" between verbal and nonverbal communication--focused on sounds that are not a part of language but appear to play an important role in the communication process.

2. Identified a set of sounds that he called the "para" (beside) dimension of language--now commonly referred to as "paralinguistic" symbols.

3. Four general types of paralinguistic symbols:

a. Vocal qualities -- concerned with the stable qualities of speech (e.g., rate, rhythm)

b. Vocal qualifiers -- concerned with momentary variations in the manner in which verbal symbols are presented (e.g., volume, force, pitch)

c. Vocal characterizers -- sounds that can stand alone as symbols because they can be interpreted as having a specific meaning (e.g., laughing, yelling, crying, grunting).

d. Vocal segregates -- sounds that regulate the flow of verbal conversation (e.g., uh, um, ah-ha)

2. The graphical aspect of a written discourse can be equalled to the sound images in a spoken discourse (Urbanová 2002: 32; translation mine). Graphics is what is first encountered when approaching a text. The visual effect of graphical devices certainly contributes to the perception of the text and creates expectations about it. Graphical level consists of the use of graphics, any photos or pictures that accompany the text, the use of colours, font, or size for highlighting the text. “The layout and graphical highlighting are important tools that help

express specific meanings and their nuances in a written text” (Urbanová 2002: 32; translation mine). Crystal formulates it in this way “the choices of type-size or colour in text are essentially non-linguistic, but they too may have clear linguistic implications … relating to the semantic structure of the utterance … or even to its grammatical structure” (1969: 17). Therefore it can be seen that the graphical level has an impact on the meaning of the text.

Of course, different sorts of written discourse will have different demands on the use of particular graphical devices and there are genres where graphical level has its established form as in newspapers or letters and is therefore more significant. On the other hand, in case of notes or messages the organisation of the text may be quite haphazard.

When speaking about text organisation it has to be mentioned that the layout of the text is significant as well. A text may be divided into paragraphs, chapters or even form a shape as in case of modernist poetry. This contributes to the way the text is processed and to its overall comprehension. A text can further contain margin notes, guide questions, or glossary of terms that refer back to it and thus influence the way it is read.

However, a speech is primarily written to be read aloud and therefore a typographic arrangement is secondary here. After all, it is usually only the speaker who comes in contact with the written form.

3.Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures — or, more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole.

The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement, and later popularised during the late 1960's by members of the counter-culture seeking to de-verbalize human communication^{[citation needed]}. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson.

Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all movements of the body have meaning (i.e. are not accidental), and that these non-verbal forms of language (or paralanguage) have a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language. Thus, a "kineme" is "similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning". (Knapp 1972:94-95)

Birdwhistell estimated that "no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words." (Birdwhistell, 1985: 158). He also concluded that there were no universals in these kinesic displays - a claim disproved by Paul Ekman's analysis of universals in facial expression.^{[citation needed]}

A few Birdwhistell-isms are as follows:

• Social personality is a temporo-spatial system. All behaviors evinced by any such system are components of the system except as related to different levels of abstractions.

• Even if no participant of an interaction field can recall, or repeat in a dramatized context, a given series or sequence of body motions, the appearance of a motion is of significance to the general study of the particular kinesic system even if the given problem can be rationalized without reference to it.

• All meaningful body motion patterns are to be regarded as socially learned until empirical investigation reveals otherwise.

• No kineme ever stands alone.

• Posture: Body posture says a lot about a person's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and also the level of fondness a person has for the other one. The studies carried out int the field of kinesics reveal that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person's left side is parallel to the other's right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech. Also, if a person leans forward or a shows a decrease in the backwards lean, it signifies positive sentiment during communication. Posture can be studied through various indicators like direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and overall body movement. Gestures: A thumbs up, or a simple wave of the hand says so much. Yes, gestures form an integral part of non-verbal communication. Gestures allow us to express a variety of emotions and thoughts like contempt, hostility, approval, affection etc. Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/nonverbal-communication.html

• In one current application, kinesics are used as signs of deception by interviewers. Interviewers look for clusters of movements to determine the veracity of the statement being uttered. Some related words may be:

• Emblems- Substitute for words and phrases

• Illustrators- Accompany or reinforce verbal messages

• Affect Displays- Show emotion

• Regulators- Control the flow and pace of communication

• Adaptors- Release physical or emotional tension

Kinesics are an important part of non-verbal communication behavior. The movement of the body, or separate parts, conveys many specific meanings and the interpretations may be culture bound. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least a low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural communications situation.

What is nonverbal communication?

A. Ray Birdwhistell (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/birdwhistell_ray.html), a pioneer in nonverbal communication research, argues that nonverbal communication can be differentiated from verbal communication o n the basis of the TYPES OF SYMBOLS used to convey meaning.

B. Nonverbal communication relies of NON-LINGUISTIC SYMBOLS. What makes a symbol "non-linguistic" is that it is not recognized as a component of any written or spoken LANGUAGE.

II. Types of Nonverbal Code Systems

A. Kinesics (Ray Birdwhistell)

1. Human communication is complex multi-channel phenomenon--people typically utilize more than one form of symbolism in their efforts to communicate to others.

2. Believed in the existence of a linguistic-kinesic link--direct relationship between language production and accompanying bodily actions.

3. Argued that body movements ("kinesics") that accompany verbal speech is non-random--they have meaning which is related to the meaning of the verbal symbols produced by the individual.

4. Five major types of kinesics:

a. EMBLEMS -- body movements that have a precise meaning for a specific group of people.

Ex: Sign language

b. ILLUSTRATORS -- body movements that accompany speech and illustrate or clarify what is being described verbally.

(1) Pictographs -- gestures that indicate shapes.

(2) Spatial movements -- gestures that indicate size or volume.

c. ADAPTORS -- body movements that facilitate the release of tension, stress, or anxiety.

d. REGULATORS -- body movements that regulate or control the back-and-forth nature of conversation.

e. AFFECT DISPLAYS -- body movements (usually facial) that display feelings and emotions.

B. Proxemics (Edward Hall)

1. Interested in the relationship between talk and distance between communicators.

2. Believed that we maintain certain distances consistent with our perceptions of the nature of our relationship with those we are communicating with.

3. Coined the term "proxemics" to refer to the system of physical distances that communicators utilize in their communication with others.

a. "Public" distance (farthest)

b. "Social" distance

c. "Personal" distance

d. "Intimate" distance (closest)

4. Discovered that this system applies to virtually all cultures; but the specific distances within those categories tend to vary across cultures.

Control questions:

1. What is the notion of Paralanguage?

2. What are Visual Expressive Means (Graphetics and Graphology)?

3. What is Kinesics?

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Lecture 11 Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of Phonetic SD and EM.

Plan:

1.The notion of Phonetic Ems and SDs

2. Onomatopoeia

3. Alliteration and assonance

4. Rhyme

5. Rhythm

6. Graphical Ems

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Recommendations:

1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.

1.The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication plays an important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. A word may acquire a desired phonetic effect only in combination with other words. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception and feeling and therefore subjective. However there exist psychological works on the theory of sound symbolism. They checked the associations, which the tested people have with the definite sounds. Statistics shows that their answers coincide very often. Verier St Woolman, one of the founders of the theory of sound symbolism claimed that a certain sound when pronounced clearly and strong has special meaning and feeling. For example the sound [d], when repeated often may produce an effect of something evil, negative and wicked. The sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, often contributes something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate analysis of sound arrangement. The aesthetiс effect of the text is composed not only with the help of sounds and prosody, but with the help of sounds and prosody together with the meaning. The sound side of the belles-letters work makes a whole with rhythm and meaning and can’t influence the reader separately. To influence aesthetically the sound part of the text should somehow be highlightened. An author can increase an emotional and aesthetic effect of his work through choosing the words, their arrangement and repetitions. Let’s see what phonetic SDs can secure this function. 2. Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc. – splash, bubble, rustle, whistle) by things (machines or tools, etc. - buzz) by people (singing, laughter, yawning, roar, giggle) and animals (moo, bleat, croak - frog). Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy: that is it can be used in transferred meaning – tintinnabulation-the sound of bells There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as thud, bowwow, ding-dong, buzz, bang, ‘cuckoo. These words have different degrees of ‘imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to decipher it. e.g. And now there came the chop-chop of wooden hammers. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing". Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes effectively used by repeating words which themselves are not onomatopoetic but they contribute to the general impact of the utterance: in the poem Boots by R. Kipling soldiers’ tread is shown - We’re foot-slog-slog-slog-sloggin’ over Africa – Foot-foot-foot-foot –sloggin’ over Africa. (Boots – boots – boots – boots – moovi’ up and down again!) Onomatopoeia helps to create the vivid portrayal of the situation described, and the phonemic structure of the word is important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. 3. Alliteration and assonance Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before" (E. A. Poe). Alliteration is also used to name the repetition of first letters: Apt Alliteration’s artful aid.(Charles Churchill). Alliteration has a long tradition in English poetry as Germanic and Anglo-Saxon poems were organized with its help. (Beowulf) Assonance is the repetition of similar stressed vowels within the line or stanza. “… Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore… (E. A. Poe)” Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning. However it supplies the utterance with a certain nuance of the meaning [d]. That’s why alliteration is regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author’s idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself. Alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect of the utterance when it has connection with sense. Now it’s used only as a subsidiary device. Its role is an expressive one – alliterated words indicate the most important concepts. It’s often used in emotive prose, newspaper headlines, titles, proverbs and sayings: Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice; safe and sound; part and parcel etc. 4. Rhyme Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. Thus, the first criterion is the identity of sound. Form this point of view we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (heart – part, flood-blood). Incomplete rhymes are divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes (ассонансы) and consonant rhymes (консонансы). In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in (advice-compromise). In consonant rhymes, on the contrary, consonants are identical and disparity in vowels, as in (wind-land, grey-grow).

The second criterion: morphological characteristics. Compound (broken) rhymes - when one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words, as in "better – forget her". The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like one word - this device will inevitably give a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch to the utterance. Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows that compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye - rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse. III the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza: couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed – aa; cross rhymes – перекрёстные - abab; framing or ring rhymes – опоясывающие - abba. IV according to their position: e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line: “I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley) The rhyme has 2 functions, which are realized simultaneously: disserving (it breaks the line into 2 distinct parts, making the reader to pause) and consolidating (consolidates the ideas expressed in 2 parts). 5. Rhythm Rhythm is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, more or less regular. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard. It exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It stirs up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in architecture. It’s not only a regular pattern of sounds or movements; it’s also any regular pattern in nature or in life. Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns. Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and poetry, but also for prose. In prose rhythm is closely connected with the metre, i.e. different metrical patterns. The rhythm of prose is based on the succession of images, themes and other big elements of the text; repetition, parallel constructions, chiasmus- перекрестный/ реверсированный повтор, similar syntactical patterns. The unit of measure here is not a syllable but a structure, a word-combination, a sequence of phrases, sentences and supra-phrasal units. Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense, helps to get the flow of thoughts and humour of the author. In poetry it conveys the mood, emotions and feelings, sharpens the thought of the author and his characters. Rhythm adds specific importance to some ideas and feelings, it helps to create reality in text. It has expressive, symbolic and graphic functions. It can imitate movement, behaviour and even setting. It foregrounds some particular words, thoughts, ideas, feelings, and vice versa obscures others, thus adding a per’spective to the text. 6.Graphical EMs Graphical EMs serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress, in written form they are shown mostly with the help of punctuation and deliberate change of a spelling of a word. “A detective! I never ‘eard of such a thing! What d’yer come ‘ere for if yer want to be a detective. ‘Ere, yer not big enough, ‘cos yer’d ‘ave to be a pleeceman first before they’d let yer be a detective, and they’d never ‘ave yer as a pleeceman. ” (J.D. Priestley,“ Angel Pavement”) Woman, without her, man is nothing. All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker. Such ‘emphatic’ punctuation is used in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative) [You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions, su’spense etc. The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication (laaarge) are used to indicate the additional stress on the emphasis word or part of the word. There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and the intonation they reflect, for their choice is too inadequate for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation. Control questions:

1. Name the Phonetic SD and EM.

2. Give the examples of Phonetic EM and SD.

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. GalperinI.R.Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Lecture 12 Stylistic classification of English vocabulary. Layers of the vocabulary.

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of English vocabulary.

Plan:

1. General considerations of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary

2. Neutral, common literary and Сommon colloquial vocabulary

3. Special literary vocabulary

4. Special colloquial vocabulary

Recommendations:

1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.