Копия УМП Теор фонетика каз 2014.doc

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

Vocal tractThe air passages above thevocal folds. The vocal tract consists of theoral tract and the nasal tract.

VocoidA sound with no obstruction in thecenter of the mouth. Vowels and semi-vowels are vocoids.

Voice barA dark area near the baseline ina spectrogram, indicating voicing during aconsonant.

Voice onset timeThe moment at whichthe voicing starts relative to the release of a closure.

VoicedHaving vibrations of the vocal foldsduring an articulation, as in English[m]inme. In a partially voiced sound, vocal foldvibrations occur during only part of the articulation, as often in English[d]indie.

VoicelessPronounced without vibrations of the vocal folds, as in English[s]insee.

Vowel qualityThe timbre of a vowelcaused almost entirely by the frequencies of the vowel formants.

Weak formThe unstressed form of anyword, such asbut andas, that does notmaintain its full form when it occurs in conversational speech.

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	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
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Оқу пәнінің тақырыптары бойынша дәріс конспектісі

Дәріс сабақтарында білім алушының оқу материалдығ конспект алуы тиіс.Сонымен бірге категорияар, құбылыс пен процесстердің мазмұнын ашып жіберетін тұжырымдамалар, ғылыми қорытынды мен практикалық нұсқаулар, шешен өнерінің оғ тәжірибесіне көңіл аударуы тиіс. Тыңдалған дәрістің материалдарын толықтыратын және теориялық ережелерінің ерекше маңыздылығын білдіретін қосымша әдебиеттен белгілер жасау үшін жұмыс конспектілердің шеттерін қалдыру тілекке сәйкес. Теориялық ерекшелерін дәлдеу және талас жағдайларды шешу үшін білім алушы оқытушыға сұрақтарды қою қажет.

Оқытушы оқыған дәдістерді толықтыру үшін білім алушылар өз конспектілеріне лектор ұсынған және оқу бағдарламада қарастырылған әдебиеттен жазулар жасап өз конспектілерін толықтырулары қажет. Баяндама немесе рефераттық хабарлама дайындау барысында білім алушы оқытушыдан әдістемелік көмек сұрауы құқығы бар. Студент негізгі және қосымша әдебиетте ұсынылмаған қазіргі көздерімен пайдаланған әдебиетті толықтыра алады. Болашақта білім алушы курстық және дипломдық жұмыс жазғанда өз дайындаған оқу материалдарды қолдана алады.

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	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
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Lecture 1 . The subject of English phonetics. Phoneticsasalinguisticscience

Дәріс мақсаты: ғылым пәнімен танысу.

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. These linguistic sciences study language from three different points of view. Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of language, with the origin and development of words, with their meaning and word building. Grammar defines the rules governing the modification of words and the combination of words into sentences. Phonetics studies the outer form of language; its sound matter.

Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics is subdivided into practical and theoretical. Practical or normative phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. Theoretical phonetics regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention paid to the historical development of English.

Phonetics is itself divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds (i.e. "segments" of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts. The way these elements of the phonetic structure of English function in the process of communication will be the main concern of this course. The description of the phonetic structure of English will be based on the so-called Received Pronunciation.

Phonetics is primarily concerned with expression level. However, phonetics is obliged to take the content level into consideration too, because at any stage of the analysis, a considerable part of the phonetician's concern is with the effect which the expression unit he is examining and its different characteristics have on meaning.

Three traditional branches of the subject are generally recognized:

1.articulatory phonetics (артикуляторнаяфонетика) is the study of the way speech sounds are made ('articulated') by the vocal organs, i.e. it studies the way in whichthe air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordinationof these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds;

2.acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speechsound, as transmitted between the speaker‘s mouth and the listener‘s ear;

3.auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain, i.e. its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the psychological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds – quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here.

The fourth branch – 'functional phonetics' (функциональнаяфонетика) – is concerned with the range and function of sounds in specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology. What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?

Phonology is the study of those segmental (speech sound types) and prosodic(intonation) features which have a differential value in the language. It studies the wayin which speakers systematically use a selection of units – phonemes or intonemes – in order to express meaning. It investigates the phonetic phenomena from the point of view of their use.

Within phonology, two branches of study are usually recognized: segmental and supra-segmental. Segmental phonology analyses speech into discrete segments, such as

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phonemes; supra-segmental or non-segmental phonology analyses those features which extend over more than one segment, such as intonation contours.

The primary aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way that sounds are organized in languages, to determine which phonemes are used and how they pattern – the phonological structure of a language. The properties of different sound systems are then compared, and hypotheses developed about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages, and in all the languages - phonological universals.

Phonology was originated in the 30s of the 20th century by a group of linguists belonging to the Prague school of linguistics – Vilem Matesius, Nickolai Trubetskoy, Roman Jakobson. The theoretical background of phonology is the phoneme theory whose foundations were first laid down by I.O. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) in the last quarter of the 19th century (between the years of 1868-1881). The most important work in phonology is THE GROUNDWORK OF PHONOLOGY [1939] by Nickolai Trubetskoy. He claimed that phonology should be separated from phonetics as it studies the functional aspect of phonic components of language. Phonetics is a biological science which investigates the sound-production aspect. Contemporary phoneticians hold the view that form and function cannot be separated and treat phonology as a linguistic branch of phonetics.

Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic level that is in the brain of the speaker; this stage maybe called psychological. The message formed within the brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that the human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. This second stage may be called physiological. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves. Consequently the third stage may be called physical or acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. So the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's hearing physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message through the nervous system to the brain and the linguistic interpretation of the information conveyed.

Language is shaped into a spoken message by means of its phonic structure/sound matter which is traditionally treated as a combination of four components:

1.the segmental/phonemic component;

2.the syllabic structure;

3.the accentual structure/word stress/lexical stress;

4.intonation.

The segmental/phonemic component. First of all, a spoken message/an utterance can be thought as a succession of the smallest, further indivisible segments which are easily singled out in the flow of speech as separate discrete elements. They are called sounds of a language or speech sounds. Definite sequences of speech sounds constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and utterances.

The segmental/phonemic component has a systemic character.It is manifested in the following ways:

1.It can be reflected in various classifications of its phonemes in which the latter are divided first into two fundamental sound types – vowels (V) and consonants (C) with further subdivision of each type.

2.Each segmental phoneme of a language has a definite number of allophones which occur in definite positions in words.

3.The articulations of allophones within words and at the junctions of the words in the flow of speech merge and interpenetrate each other.

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The syllabic structure. A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word is a syllable.

Articulatorily a word may be pronounced "syllable at a time", e.g. ˏun-der-'stand; so the syllable is the smallest further indivisible unit of speech production.

Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the syllable and only after that the sounds contained. The notion of syllable is very real to native speakers, and is used in everyday conversation.

Word/lexical stress. The amount of effort or energy expended in producing a syllable is called STRESS. For the hearer, stress is manifested as perceptual PROMINENCE, or strength. In other words, a stressed syllable seems more prominent or stronger than the other syllables in a word: it stands out [Pennington 1996:129].

Speaker's perspective on stress	Listener's perspective on stress
Amount of effort expended	Degree of perceptual prominence

Traditionally, the word 'stress' denotes prominence referring to die syllables in words as items of vocabulary, i.e. pronounced in isolation, but not in phrases and sentences – word stress/lexical stress which constitutes the third component of phonic structure of language.

Supra-segmental/prosodic features/intonation. Words in speech are not used in isolation but in phrases and sentences where they are organized according to grammar rules, get different degrees of prominence, each syllable of a word is pronounced with a different degree of pitch and loudness of the voice, and tempo/speed of utterance. Variations in pitch, prominence/stress, and tempo are considered to be supra-segmental or prosodic. They are traditionally termed intonation.

The most important intonation/supra-segmental effects in a language are provided by:

1.the linguistic use of pitch, or speech melody;

2.the linguistic use of utterance-level /sentence stress;

3.the linguistic use of speech tempo.

Pitch, loudness/prominence and tempo together create the rhythm of a language, loudness is the basis of rhythmical effects in English. In other languages, such as oriental ones, pitch height (high vs. low) is a central feature of rhythm.

Languages also vary in the way in which rhythmical contrasts are made. English rhythm is believed to preserve roughly equal intervals of time between stressed syllables respective of the number of unstressed syllables that come between them [Roach 2000:41]. This is defined as a 'stress-timed/based' (or isochronous) rhythm [Crystal 1997] or a stress/based rhythm [Laver 1995]. According to Peter Roach, if the following sentence is said with isochronous stresses, the four syllables Both of them are would take the time amount of time as new and here: Both of them are new here [ibid. :41]. However, experimental research suggests that isochrony (i.e. the property of being equally spaced at in time) is rarely found in natural speech. It is more likely that the brain judges sequences of stresses to be more nearly isochronous than they really are. Still traditionally regarded as stress-timed language, English reveals an important feature: there is a tendency for unstressed syllables to become weak, and to contain short, centralized/reduced vowels.In this respect, it differs from Russian as well as other languages (Spanish,French, and Japanese, etc.) which are described as 'syllable-timed'.

In sum, a detailed description of phonic/sound substance of a language will consist of the study of:

1.its segmental subsystem,

2.the combinatory possibilities of the sounds – syllable structureand

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3. the prosody of the language (the supra-segmental subsystem), i.e. how features of pitch, loudness and tempo work to produce stress/accent, intonation and rhythm.

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Lecture 2. Methods of investigating the sound matter of the language. Phoneticsandothersocialsciences

Дәріс мақсаты: дыбыс зерттеу әдістерімен таныстыру және фонетиканың басқа ғылымдармен байланысты ашу.

It is useful to distinguish between phonetic studies carried out without other instruments of analysis than the human senses and such as are based upon the witness of registering or computing machines and technical analysing or synthesizing devices.

If controlled phonetic experiments employ the use of measuring devices and instrumental techniques, this sub-field of phonetics is calledinstrumental phonetics.Instrumentalmethods deriving from physiology and physics were introduced into phoneticsin the second half of the 19thcentury in order to supplement and indeed to rectify theimpressions deriving from the human senses, especially the auditory impressions, sincethese are affected by the limitations of the perceptual mechanism, and in general arerather subjective.

The use of instruments is valuable in ascertaining the nature of the limitationsand characteristics of the human sensory apparatus by providing finer and more detailedanalysis against which sensory analysis can be assessed.This is strictly an instrumental method of study. This type of investigation together with sensory analysis is widely used inexperimental phonetics.

The results available from instrumental analysis supplement those available fromsensory analysis. The"subjective"methods of analysis by sensory impression and the"objective"methods of analysis by instruments are complementary and not oppositive to one another. Both "objective" and "subjective" methods are widely and justifiably used in modern phonetics.

Articulatory phoneticsborders with anatomy and physiology and the tools for investigating just what the speech organs do are tools which are used in these fields: directobservation, wherever it is possible, e.g. lip movement, some tongue movement; combined with x-ray photography or x-ray cinematography; observation through mirrors as in thelaryngoscopic investigation of vocal cord movement; palatography – recording patterns of contact between the tongue and the palate; glottography – studying the vibrations of thevocal cords, etc.

Acoustic phoneticscomes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to measure and analyse the movement of the air in theterms of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone into the speechchain, converting the air movement into corresponding electrical activity and analyzing the result in terms of frequency of vibration and amplitude of vibration in relation totime. The use of such technical devices as spectrograph, intonograph and other soundanalysing and sound synthesizing machines is generally combined with the method of direct observation.

The methods applied inauditory phoneticsare those of experimental psychology.

As was stated above, phoneticians cannot act only as describers and classifiers of the material form of phonetic units. They are also interested in the way in which soundphenomena function in a particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what part they play in manifesting the meaningful distinctions of the language.

In linguistics, function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, thatis, the role of the various elements of the language in the distinguishing of one sequenceof sounds, such as a word or a sequence of words, from another of different meaning. Though

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we consider the discriminatory function to be the main linguistic function of anyphonetic unit we cannot ignore the other function of phonetic units that is, their role inthe formation of syllables, words, phrases and even texts. This functional or social aspectof phonetic phenomena was first introduced in the works by I.A. Baudouin-de-Courtenay.Later on N.S. Trubetskoy declared phonology to be a linguistic science limiting articulatory and acoustic phonetics to anatomy, physiology and acoustics only. This conceptionis shared by many foreign linguists who investigate the material form and the functionof oral speech units separately. Russian linguists proceed from the trulymaterialistic view that language being the man's medium of thought can exist only in thematerial form of speech sounds. That is why they consider phonology a branch of phonetics that investigates its most important social aspect.

Through study of the nature of language, especially of spoken language, valuableinsights are gained into human psychology and into the functioning of man in society. That is why we dare say that phonetics has considerablesocial value.

As regards the learning of specific foreign languages, there has never been a time inthe world when the ability of growing numbers of people to speak one another's languagereally well has been of such significance as now.

A knowledge of the structure of sound systems, and of the articulatory and acousticproperties of the production of speech is indispensable in the teaching of foreign languages.

For	those who	work in speech therapy, which handles pathological conditions
of speech,	phonetics	forms an essential part of the professional training syllabus.

Phoneticsalso enters into the training of teachers of the deaf and dumb people and can be of relevance to a number of medical and dental problems.

Our further point should be made in connection with the relationship between phonetics andsocial sciences.

Sociophoneticsstudies the ways in which pronunciation interacts with society.It is the study of the way in which phonetic structures change in response to differentsocial functions and the deviations of what these functions are. Society here is used in itsbroadest sense, to cover a spectrum of phenomena to do with nationality, more restrictedregional and social groups, and the specific interactions of individuals within them.

Psycholinguisticsas a distinct area of interest developed in the early sixties,and in its early form covered the psychological implications of an extremely broadarea, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology. Nowadays no one would want todeny the existence of strong mutual bonds of interest operating between linguistics,phonetics in our case and psychology.

The field of phonetics is thus becoming wider and tending to extend over thelimits originally set by its purely linguistic applications. On the other hand, the growing interest in phonetics is doubtless partly due to increasing recognition of the centralposition of language in every line of social activity. It is important, however, that the phonetician should remain a linguist and lookupon his science as a study of the spoken formof language. It is its application to linguistic phenomena that makes phonetics a socialscience in the proper sense of the word, notwithstanding its increasing need of technicalmethods, and in spite of its practical applications.

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Lecture 3.Organs of speech and their functions

Дәріс мақсаты: сөйлеу мүшелері және дыбыстауда орындайтын функцияларын таныстыру.

Phonetics is concerned with describing the speech sounds that occur inthe languages of the world. We want to know what these sounds are,how they fall into patterns, and how they change in different circumstances.Most importantly, we want to know what aspects of the sounds arenecessary for conveying the meaning of what is being said.

Air from the lungs goes up the windpipe (the trachea, to use the more,technical term) and into the larynx, at which point it must pass betweentwo small muscular folds called the vocal cords. If the vocal cords areapart, as they normally are when breathing out, the air from the lungs willhave a relatively free passage into the pharynx and the mouth. But if thevocal cords are adjusted so that there is only a narrow passage between them, the airstream will cause them to vibrate. Sounds produced when thevocal cords are vibrating are said to be voiced, as opposed to those inwhich the vocal cords are apart, which are said to be voiceless.

The difference between voiced and voiceless sounds is often importantin distinguishing sounds. In each of the pairs of words "fat, vat; thigh, thy; Sue, zoo" the first consonant in the first word of each pair is voiceless,whereas in the second word, it is voiced.

Figure 3.1 The principal parts of the vocal tract

The air passages above the larynx are known as the vocal tract. Figure 2.1 shows their location within the head. Theshape of the vocal tract is a very important factor in the production ofspeech. Note that the air passages thatmake up the vocal tract may be divided into the oral tract within the mouthand pharynx, and the nasal tract within the nose. The upper limit of thenasal tract has been marked with a dotted line since the exact boundaries ofthe air passages within the nose depend on soft tissues of variable size.

The parts of the vocal tract that can be used to form sounds are calledarticulators. The articulators that form the lower surface of the vocal tractoften move toward those that form the upper surface. Try saying the word"capital" and note the major movements of your tongue and lips. You willfind that the back of the tongue makes contact with the roof of the mouthfor the first sound and then comes down for the following vowel. The lipscome together in the formation of p and then come apart again in thevowel. The tongue tip comes up for the t and again, for some people, for the final L.

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The names for the principal parts of the upper surface of the vocal tract are given in Figure 2.1. The upper lip and the upper teeth (notably the frontal incisors) are familiar enough structures. Just behind the upper teeth is a small protuberance that you can feel with the tip of the tongue. This is called the alveolar ridge. You can also feel that the front part of the roof of the mouth is formed by a bony structure. This is the hard palate. You will probably have to use a fingertip to feel further back. Most people cannot curl the tongue up far enough to touch the' soft palate, or velum, at the back of the mouth. The soft palate is a muscular flap that can be raised to press against the back wall of the pharynx and shut off the nasal tract, preventing air from going out through the nose. In this case there is said to be velic closure. This action separates the nasal tract from the oral tract sothat the air can go out only through the mouth. At the lower end of the softpalate is a small appendage hanging down that is known as the uvula. Thepart of the vocal tract between the uvula and the larynx is the pharynx. Theback wall of the pharynx may be considered to be one of the articulatorson the upper surface of the vocal tract.

The tip and blade of the tongue are the most mobile parts. Behind theblade is what is technically called the front of the tongue: it is actually theforward part of the body of the tongue, and lies underneath the hard palatewhen the tongue is at rest. The remainder of the body of the tongue may bedivided into the center, which is partly beneath the hard palate and partlybeneath the soft palate, the back, which is beneath the soft palate, and theroot, which is opposite the back wall of the pharynx. The epiglottis isattached to the lower part of the root of the tongue.

Producing different speech sounds depends on the movement of speech organs. It is essential to know the movement and the placement of each organ to produce particular sounds. The above descriptions and functions of the organ of speech help you to guide students to produce the consonants and vowels in a right way.

In accordance with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped as follows:

The respiratory or power mechanism furnishes the flow of air which is the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the wind-pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is regulated by the power mechanism.

From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the upper stages of the vocal tract. First of all it passes to thelarynxcontaining thevocal cords. The functionof the vocal cords consists in their role as avibratorset in motion by the air-stream sentby the lungs. At least two actions of the vocal cords as a vibrator should be mentioned.

The opening between the vocal cords is known as theglottis.When the glottisis tightly closed and the air is sent up below it the so-called glottal stop is produced. Itoften occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces [p], [t], or [k] or even when itprecedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds. The most important speech functionof the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. .

The height of the speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations. Themore frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. We are able to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing modifications of thepitchcomponent of intonation. More than that, we are able to modify the size of the puff of air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords, that is we can alter theamplitudeof the vibration which causes changes of theloudnessof the sound heard by the listener.

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