Копия УМП Теор фонетика каз 2014.doc

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
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From the larynx the air-stream passes tosupraglottal cavities that is to thepharynx,themouthand thenasalcavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech sounds.

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	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
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Lecture 4. Phonemesandallophones

Дәріс мақсаты: ағылшын фонемалар мен аллофондарды қарастыру.

Trubetzkoy (1939) wrote "It is the task of phonology to study which differences in sound are related to differences in meaning in a given language, in which way the discriminative elements ... are related to each other, and the rules according to which they may be combined into words and sentences."

Linguistic units which cannot be substituted for each other without a change in meaning can be referred to as linguistically contrastive or significant units. Such units may be phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic etc.

PHONEMES

Phonemes are the linguistically contrastive or significant sounds (or sets of sounds) of a language. Such a contrast is usually demonstrated by the existence of minimal pairs or contrast in identical environment (C.I.E.). Minimal pairs are pairs of words which vary only by the identity of the segment (another word for a single speech sound) at a single location in the word (eg.[mæt] and [kæt]).

eg. the English stop consonants could be defined by the following set of minimally contrasting words:-

i) /pɪn/ vs /bɪn/ vs /tɪn/ vs /dɪn/ vs /kɪn/

Only /ɡ/ does not occur in this paradigm and at least one minimal pair must be found with each of the other 5 stops to prove conclusively that it is not a variant form of one of them.

ii) /ɡʌn/ vs /pʌn/ vs /bʌn/ vs /tʌn/ vs /dʌn/

Again, only five stops belong to this paradigm. A single minimal pair contrasting /ɡ/ and /k/ is required now to fully demonstrate the set of English stop consonants.

iii) /ɡæɪn/ vs /kæɪn/

Sometimes it is not possible to find a minimal pair which would support the contrastiveness of two phonemes and it is necessary to resort to examples of contrast in analogous environment (C.A.E.). C.A.E. is almost a minimal pair, however the pair of words differs by more than just the pair of sounds in question.

A syntagmatic analysis of a speech sound, on the other hand, identifies a unit's identity within a language. In other words, it indicates all of the locations or contexts within the words of a particular language where the sound can be found.

For example, a syntagm of the	phone [n] in English could be in the form:-
( #CnV..., #nV..., ...Vn#, ...VnC#, ...VnV...	, etc.)

whilst [ŋ] in English would be:-(...Vŋ#, ...VŋC#, ...VŋV..., etc)

but would not include the word initial forms of the kind described for [n].

ALLOPHONES

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally

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allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or complementary distribution (C.D.). The C.D. of two phonemes means that the two phonemes can never be found in the same environment (ie. the same environment in the senses of position in the word and the identity of adjacent phonemes).

eg. in many languages voiced and voiceless stops with the same place of articulation do not contrast linguistically but are rather two phonetic realisations of a single phoneme

(ie. /p/=[p,b],/t/=[t,d], and /k/=[k,ɡ]).

eg. Some French speakers choose to use the alveolar trill [r] when in the village and

the more prestigious uvular trill [ʀ] when in Paris. Such a choice is made for sociological reasons.

PHONETIC SIMILARITY

Allophones must be phonetically similar to each other. In analysis, this means you can assume that highly dissimilar sounds are separate phonemes (even if they are in complementary distribution). For this reason no attempt is made to find minimal pairs which contrast vowels with consonants. Exactly what can be considered phonetically similar may vary somewhat from language family to language family and so the notion of phonetic similarity can seem to be quite unclear at times.

eg. In English, /h/ and /ŋ/ are in complementary distribution. /h/ only ever occurs at the beginning of a syllable (head, heart, enhance, perhaps) whilst /ŋ/ only ever occurs at the end of a syllable (sing, singer, finger). They are, however, so dissimilar that no one regards them as allophones of the one phoneme. They vary in place and manner of articulation, as well as voicing. Further the places of articulation (velar vs glottal) are quite remote from each other and /h/ is oral whilst /ŋ/ is nasal.

According to Hockett (1942), "...if a and b are members of one phoneme, they share one or more features". Phonetic similarity is therefore based on the notion of shared features. Such judgments of similarity will vary from language to language and there are no universal criteria of similarity.

The following pairs of sounds might be considered to be similar.

i)two sounds differing only in voicing:[pb] [td] [kɡ] [θð] [sz] [ʃʒ] etc...

ii)two sounds differing in manner of articulation only as plosive vs fricative. The

sibilant or grooved fricatives [s,z,ʃ,ʒ] are excluded from this category as they are quite different auditorily from the other ("central") fricatives.

iii)any pairs of consonants close in place of articulation and differing in no other contrastive feature: [sʃ] [zʒ] [nɲŋ] [lɭ] [lʎ] [mɱ], etc...

iv)any other pairs of consonants which are close in articulation and differ by one other

feature but are nevertheless frequently members of the same phoneme [cɡ] [tθ] [dð]

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v) Any two vowels differing in only one feature or articulated with adjacent tongue positions [æ ɐ] [i ɪ] [ɐʹɐ] [i y] [ɑɑ]

There are many examples of very similar phones which are perceived by native speakers to belong to separate phonemes. In English, for example, a word terminal voiceless stop may be either released and aspirated or unreleased. The homorganic voiced stop may also be released or unreleased.

Conversely, phones which are very dissimilar (at least from certain perspectives) may be felt by native speakers to belong to a single phoneme.

From an articulatory perspective, these phones seem very dissimilar (bilabial, palatal, and glottal) being produced at the extreme ends of the vocal tract. They are, however, relatively similar acoustically and auditorily (they are all relatively weak voiceless fricatives). This kind of phonetic similarity is listener orientated rather than speaker orientated.

eg. English	/t/ →	[ʔ] medially	and	finally	in	some	dialects

kney - "butter", "wait"

	→	[t] initially
nb.	/k/ →	[k,ʔ] does not occur although they are articulatorily closer

PHONEMIC PATTERN

A pair of phones in complementary distribution may sometimes be classified into separate phonemes on the basis of phonemic pattern. In other words, is there a group of phonemes which exhibit a similar pattern of distribution (eg. clustering behaviour, morphology, etc.) to one of the phones being examined?

For example, there is a suffix which when placed before a word commencing with a

stop has the effect of negating the original meaning. The suffix has the form /ɪ/ plus the nasal homorganic with the stop.

ie.	"impossible"	[ɪmp...]
	"intolerable"	[ɪnt...]
	"incalculable"	[ɪŋk...] or [ɪnk...]
		(free variation in citation form, but homorganic
		predominating in rapid speech)

Clearly, this pattern suggests that [ŋ] behaves in some instances with the same phonological pattern as the other nasals. It does in fact raise the question of [ŋ] being an allophone of /n/. This was indeed the case until the 1600's, but now there are quite a few minimal pairs which have since crept into the language. ("sin"/"sing", "run"/"rung").

PHONOLOGICAL SPACE

The greater the distance between a phoneme and its nearest neighbours, the greater the scope for allophonic variation. In other words, the larger the number of redundant features (ie. features which when changed will not create another phoneme) the greater the number of allophones which can actually occur.

eg. English

/p/

→

[-voice]

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[+bilabial]

[+stop]

[+/-aspirated]

The possible varieties of /r/ seem to include variations of manner, place and voicing. The only restrictions are that its allophones may not overlap with those of /l/ and /w/.

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Lecture 5. English vowels. Vowels in context

Дәріс мақсаты: ағылшындыбыстыдауыстыдыбыстарды қарастыру.

The quality of a vowel is known to be determined by the size, volume, and shape ofthe mouth resonator, which are modified by the movement of active speech organs, thatis the tongue and the lips. Besides, the particular quality of a vowel can depend on a lotof other articulatory characteristics, such as the relative stability of the tongue, the positionof the lips, physical duration of the segment, the force of articulation, the degree of tenseness of speech organs.

The analysis of the articulatory constituents of the quality of vowels allowed phoneticians to suggest the criteria which are conceived to be of great importance in classificatory description. First to be concerned here are the following criteria termed:

1.stability of articulation;

2.tongue position;

3.lip position;

4.character of the vowel end;

5.length;

6.tenseness.

Stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in theprocess of the articulation of a vowel. There are two possible varieties: a) the tongue position is stable; b) it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another. There exists in addition a third variety, an intermediatecase, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak. So according to this principlethe English vowels are subdivided into:

1.monophthongs,

2.diphthongs,

3.diphthongoids.

Diphthongs are complex entities just like affricates, so essentially similar complications are known to exist with them. The question is whether they are monophonemicor biphonemic units. Scholars like V.A. Vasilyev and L.R. Zinger grant the English diphthongs monophonemic status on the basis of articulatory, morphonological and syllabicindivisibility as well as the criteria of duration and commutability.

As to articulatory indivisibility of the diphthongs it could be proved by the fact thatneither morpheme nor syllable boundary that separate the nucleus and the glide

can pass within it, for example: [′sei-iŋ]saying,[′krai-iŋ]crying,[in-′ʤɔ-iŋ]enjoying,[′slзu-

ә]slower,[′plзu-iŋ] ploughing,[′kliә-rә]clearer,[′εә-riŋ]airing,[′рuә-rә]poorer. The present study of theduration of diphthongs shows that the length of diphthongs is the same as that that characterizes the English long monophthongs in the same phonetic context, cf. [sait –

si:t],[кзut – kɔ:t]. Finally the application of commutation test proves the monophonemic statusof diphthongs because any diphthong could be commutated with practically any vowel. Itcould be exemplified in the following oppositions:

[bait — bit] bite – bit [bait—bʌt] bite – but

[bait — bɔ:t]bite – bought and so on.

Another principle we should consider from phonological point of view istheposition of the tongue.For the sake of convenience the position of the tongue inthe mouth cavity is characterized from two aspects, that is the horizontal and verticalmovement.

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According to the horizontal movement Russian phoneticiansdistinguish five classes of English vowels. They are:

1.front: [i:], [e], [ei], [æ], [ε(ә)];

2.front-retracted: [ɪ], [ɪ(ә)];

3.central: [ʌ], [з:], [ә],[з(u)], [ε(ә)];

4.back: [ɒ], [ɔ:], [u:], [a:];

5.back-advanced: [u], [u(ә)].

As to the tongue position in its vertical movement British scholars distinguishthree classes of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open), and low (or open) vowels.

Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class, i.e. broad and narrow variations of the threevertical positions of the tongue. Thus the following six groups of vowels are distinguished:

1.	close	a) narrow: [i:] [u:];
		b) broad: [i], [u], [i(ә)], [u(ә)];
2.	mid	a) narrow: [e], [з:], [ә], [e(i)], [з(u)];
		b) broad: [ә], [ʌ];
3.	open	a) narrow: [ε(ә)], [ɔ:], [ɒ(i)];
		b) broad: [æ], [a(i, u)], [ɒ], [a:]

Another feature of English vowels which is sometimes included into the principlesof classification islip rounding.Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished, that isspread, neutral and rounded. For the purpose of classification it is sufficient to distinguishbetween two lip positions: rounded and unrounded, or neutral.

Another property of English vowel sounds – checknessdepends on the character of the articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. This kind of transition (VC) is veryclose in English. As a result all English short vowels are checked whenstressed.

The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into two varieties according totheir length:

a.short vowels: [i], [e], [æ], [ɒ], [u], [ʌ], [ә];

b.long vowels: [i:], [a:], [ɔ:], [з:], [u:].

A vowel like any sound has physical duration – time which is required for its production (articulation). When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot help beinginfluenced by one another. Duration is one of the characteristics of a vowel which is modified by and depends on the following factors:

1.its own length,

2.the accent of the syllable in which it occurs,

3.phonetic context,

4.the position of the sound in a syllable,

5.the position in a rhythmic structure,

6.the position in a tone group,6.the position in a phrase,

7.the position in an utterance,

8.the tempo of the whole utterance,

9.the type of pronunciation,

10.the style of pronunciation.

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The problem the analysts are concerned with is whether variations in quantity orlength are meaningful (relevant), that is whether vowel length can be treated as a relevantfeature of English vowel system.

Different scholars attach varying significance to vowel quantity.

The approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician, extends the principle, underlying phonological relevance of vowel quantity. That means that words insuch pairs as

[bid] – [bi:d], [sit] – [si:t], [ful] – [fu:d], [′fɒ:wә:d](foreword) – [′fɔ:wәd](forward) are distinguished from one another by the opposition of different length, whichD. Jones calls chronemes.

One more articulatory characteristic needs our attention. That istenseness.Itcharacterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of production of a vowel.Special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense while historically short vowels are lax.

Summarizing we could say that phonological analysis of articulatory features of English vowels allows to consider functionally relevant the following two characteristics:

a.stability of articulation,

b.tongue position.

It is	well-known that a vowel in an unstressed syllable is perceived as very
short, weak,	and indistinct. The unstressed syllables are usually associated with vowels of

central or centralized quality [ә], [i], sometimes [u] and the diphthongs [зu], [ai] (or asyllabicconsonant), e.g.among [ә‘mʌŋ],before [bi‘fɔ:],useful [‗ju:sful],tomato [tә‘ma:tзu], exercise[‗eksәsaiz],sudden [‗sʌdn].

Also vowels of full quality sometimes occur in unstressed positions, often in borrowed words of Latin and Greek origin, e.g.architect [‗a:kutekt], paragraph [‗pærәgra:f],canteen [kaen‘ti:n].

Our next point should be made in connection with thephonemic status of theneutral sound[ә]. The phonological analysis marks the opposition of the neutral soundto other

unstressed vowels, the most common among them being [ɪ]. In the minimal pairs:officers [′ɒfɪsәz] – offices [′ɒfɪsiz];accept [әk′sept] – except [ɪk′sept],armour [′a:mә] –

army [′a:mɪ] the neutral sound is phonologically opposed to the phoneme [ɪ] with its own distinctive features capable of differentiating the meaning of lexical units. So the neutral sound[ә] inofficers, accept, armour is an independent phoneme opposed to the [i] phoneme of the minimal pairs given above.

On the other hand, the problem of the phonemic status of the neutral sound has amorphological aspect. In English there are numerous alternationsof vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables between the derivatives of the same root ordifferent grammatical forms of the same word. Cf.:

[æ] – [ә] man – sportsman [ʌ] – [ә] some – wholesome

[ɒ]– [ә] combine n– combine v [ei]– [ә] operation – operative [зu] – [ә] post – postpone

To exemplify the above-mentioned principles of classification, the RP vocalic systemcan be presented in the following way:

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Table 5.1

The modifications of vowels in a speech chain are traced in the following directions:they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of vowels in a speechcontinuum are determined by a number of factors such as the position of the vowel in the word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm, etc.

The decrease of the vowel quantity or in other words the shortening of thevowel length is known as a quantitative modification of vowels, which may be illustrated as follows:

1. The shortening of the vowel length occurs in unstressed positions, e.g. blackboard [Ɔ:], sorrow [зu] (reduction).

Form words often demonstrate quantitative reduction in unstressed positions, e.g.

Is →he or she to blame? – [hi:] But:At →last he has come . – [hi]

2.The length of a vowel depends on its position in a word. It varies in different phonetic

environments. English vowels are said to have positional length, e.g. knee – need – neat (accommodation).

Qualitative modification of most vowels occurs in unstressed positions. Unstressedvowels lose their "colour", their quality, which is illustrated by the examples below:

1.In unstressed syllables vowels of full value are usually sub jected to

qualitativechanges, e.g. man [mæn] – sportsman ['spɔ:tsmәn], conduct ['kɒndәkt] – conduct [kәn'dʌkt].In such cases the quality of the vowel is reduced to the neutral sound [ә].

2. Slight degree of nasalization marks vowels preceded or followed by the nasal consonants [n], [m], e.g. never, no, then, men (accommodation).

The realization of reduction as well as assimilation and accommodation is connected with the style of speech. In rapid colloquial speech reduction may result in vowelelision, the complete omission of the unstressed vowel, which is also known as zero reduction. The example below illustrates a stage-by-stage reduction (including zero reduction)of a phrase.

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Has he done it?	[hæz hi: ,dʌn it]
	[hәz hɪ ,dʌn it]
	[әz i,dʌn it]
	[zi ,dʌn it]

The sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical forms of wordsare known assound alternations.It is perfectly obvious that sound alternations arecaused by assimilation, accommodation and reduction in speech. Alternations of consonants are mainly

due to contextual	assimilations:	the	dark	[ł]inspell alternates			withthe clear	[l]
inspelling.Vowel	alternations	are	the	result	of	the	reduction	in

unstressedpositions:combine ['kɒmbain] (n) – combine [kәm'bain] (v) where[ɒ]in the stressed syllableof the noun alternates with the neutral sound in the unstressed syllable of the verb. Somesound alternations are traced to the phonetic changes in earlier periods of the languagedevelopment and are known ashistorical.

The following list of examples presents the most common types of historical alternations.

1. Vowel Alternations

1.Distinction of irregular verbal forms: [i: – e – e]: mean – meant – meant

[i – ʌ – ʌ]: dig – dug – dug.

[ai – зu – i]: write – wrote – written [i – æ – ʌ]: sing – sang – sung

[εә– ɔ: – ɔ:]:wear – wore – worn

[ai– ɪ– i]: hide – hid – hidden

[i:– зu– зu]: speak – spoke – spoken [зu– u: – зu]: know – knew – known

[ɪ– ei– i]: give – gave – given [e – ɒ– ɒ]:get – got –got

[i: – ɔ:– ɔ:]: teach – taught – taught

[æ – u – u]: understand – understood – understood [ei– u– ei]: take – took – taken

[ei– зu– зu]; wake – woke – woken

[u: – ɒ– ɒ]:shoot – shot – shot [e – зu– зu]: tell – told – told [i – æ – æ]: sit – sat – sat

[i – ɔ: – ɔ:]: think – thought – thought

[ʌ– ei– ʌ]:become – became – become [ai– зu– i]: rise – rose – risen

[зu– u: – зu]: grow – grew – grown [u: – зu– зu]: choose – chose – chosen [ai – u: – зu]: fly – flew – flown

[ai– ɔ: – ɔ:]: fight – fought – fought [ai– au– au]: find – found – found

[i: – ɔ: – i:]: see – saw – seen

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