Копия УМП Теор фонетика каз 2014.doc

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

No, Mary — Well, Mary.

The nucleus and the tail form what is called terminal tone. The two other sections of the intonation pattern are the head and the pre-head which form the pre-nuclear part of the intonation pattern and, like the tail, they may be looked upon as optional elements:

Lake District is one of the loveliest 'parts of, Britain.

The meaning of the intonation group is the combination of the «meaning» of the terminal tone and the pre-nuclear part combined with the «meaning» of pitch range and pitch level. The parts of the intonation pattern can be combined in various ways manifesting changes in meaning, cf.: the High Head combined with Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise in the phrase Not at all.

—>Not at all (reserved, calm).

—>Not at all) (surprised, concerned).

—>Not at all (encouraging, friendly).

—> Not at all (questioning).

—> Not at all (intensely encouraging, protesting).

The more the height of the pitch contrasts within the intonation pattern the more emphatic the intonation group sounds, cf.:

He's won. Fan'tastic. Fan'tastic.

M.Halliday supposes that English intonation contrasts are grammatical. He argues first that there is a neutral or unmarked tone choice and then explains all other choices as meaningful by contrast. Thus if one takes the statement Idon't know the suggested intonational meanings are: Low Fall - neutral. Low Rise - non-committal, High Rise - contradictory, FallRise - with reservation, Rise-Fall - with commitment. Unlike J.D. O'Connor and G.F. Arnold, M. Halliday attributes separate significance to the prе-nuclear choices, again taking one choice as neutral and the other(s) as meaningful by contrast.

D.Crystal presents an approach based on the view "that any explanation of intonational meaning cannot be arrived at by seeing the issues solely in either grammatical or attitudinal terms". He ignores the significance of pre-head and head choices and deals only with terminal tones.

It is still impossible to classify, in any practical analysis of intonation, all the fine shades of feeling and attitude which can be conveyed by slight changes in pitch, by lengthening or shortening tones, by increasing or decreasing the loudness of the voice, by changing its quality, and in various other ways. On the other hand it is quite possible to make a broad classification of intonation patterns which are so different in their nature that they materially: change the meaning of the utterance and to make different pitches and degrees of loudness in each of them. Such an analysis resembles the phonetic analysis of sounds of a language whereby phoneticians establish the number of significant sounds it uses.

The distinctive function of intonation is realized in the opposition of the same word sequences which differ in certain parameters of the intonation pattern. Intonation patterns make their distinctive contribution at intonation group, phrase and text levels. Thus in the phrases:

If Mary, comes let me  know atonce (a few people are expected to come but it is Mary who interests the speaker)

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

61

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

If —>Mary comes let me  know at once (no one else but Mary is expected to

come)

the intonation patterns of the first intonation groups are opposed. In the opposition I enjoyed it - I enjoyed it the pitch pattern operates over the whole phrase adding in the second phrase the notion that the speaker has reservations (implying a continuation something like 'but it could have been a lot better').

Any section of the intonation pattern, any of its three constituents can perform the distinctive function thus being phonological units. These units form a complex system of intonemes, tonemes, accentemes, chronemes, etc. These phonological units like phonemes consist of a number of variants.

The most powerful phonological unit is the terminal tone. The opposition of terminal tones distinguishes different types of sentence. The same sequence of words may be interpreted as a different syntactical type, i.e. a statement or a question, a question or an exclamation being pronounced with different terminal tones, e.g.:

Tom saw it (statement) - Tom saw it? (general question)

Didn't you enjoy it? (general question) - Didn't you enjoy it? (exclamation) Will you be quiet? (request) - Will you be quiet? (command).

The number of terminal tones indicates the number of intonation groups. Sometimes the number of intonation groups may be important for meaning. For example, the sentence My sister, who lives in the South, has just arrived may mean two different things. In oral speech it is marked by using two or three intonation groups. If the meaning is: 'my only sister who happens to live in the South', then the division would be into three intonation groups: My sister, who lives in the South, has just arrived. On the other hand, if the meaning is 'that one of my two sisters, who lives in the South', the division is into two intonation groups.

Let us consider the sentence It was an unusually rainy day. As the beginning of, say, a story told on the radio the last three words would be particularly important, they form the semantic centre with the nucleus on the word day. The first three words play a minor part. The listener would get a pretty clear picture of the story's setting if the first three words were not heard and the last three were heard clearly. If the last three words which form the semantic centre were lost there would be virtually no information gained at all.

It should be pointed out here that the most important role of the opposition of terminal tones is that of differentiating the attitudes and emotions expressed by the speaker. The speaker must be particularly careful about the attitudes and emotions he expresses since the hearer is frequently more interested in the speaker's attitude or feeling than in his words - that is whether he speaks nicely or nastily. For instance, the special question Why? may be pronounced with the low falling tone sounding rather detached, sometimes even hostile. When pronounced with the low-rising tone it is sympathetic, friendly, interested.

All the other sections of the intonation pattern differentiate only attitudinal or emotional meaning, e.g.: being pronounced with the high рге-head, Hello sounds more friendly than when pronounced with the low pre-head, cf.:

 He llo! - O He llo!

More commonly, however, different kinds of pre-heads, heads, the same as pitch ranges and levels fulfil their distinctive function not alone but in the combination with other prosodic constituents.

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

62

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

There are cases when intonation neutralizes or compensates the lexical content of the utterance as it happens, for instance, in the command Phone him at once, please, when the meaning of the word please is neutralized by intonation.

Lack of balance between intonation and word content, or intonation and the grammatical structure of the utterance may serve special speech effects. A highly forceful or exciting statement said with a very matter-of-fact intonation may, by its lack of balance, produce a type of irony; if one says something very complimentary, but with an intonation of contempt, the result is an insult.

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

63

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

Lecture 12.Components of prosody. Melody. Tempo. Timbre. Rhythm. Pitch. Tone and overtones.

Дәріс мақсаты: әуен, қарқын, дауыс құбылысы, ритм, тон – просодия компонентерімен таныстыру.

Prosody is the study of the tune and rhythm of speech and how these features contribute to meaning.

Prosody is the study of those aspects of speech that typically apply to a level above that of the individual phoneme and very often to sequences of words (in prosodic phrases). Features above the level of the phoneme (or "segment") are referred to as suprasegmentals. A phonetic study of prosody is a study of the suprasegmental features of speech.

At the phonetic level, prosody is characterised by:-

vocal pitch (fundamental frequency)

loudness (acoustic intensity)

rhythm (phoneme and syllable duration)

Phonetic studies of prosody often concentrate on measuring these characteristics.

Prosody has been studied from numerous perspectives by people belonging to differing linguistic schools. There has been great diversity of approaches to prosody. Different approaches examine prosody from the perspective of grammar, of discourse, of pragmatics and of phonetics and phonology

Prosody can be regarded as part of the grammar of a language. Discourse approaches examine the prosody of normal interactions rather than stylised, constructed, fluent, scripted interactions. Functionalist approaches integrate the study of prosody with the study of grammar and meaning in natural social interactions.

Prosody overlaps with emotion in speech. The same acoustic features that are used to express prosody (intensity, vocal pitch, rhythm, rate of utterance) are also affected by emotion in the voice. For example, I can simultaneously be sad and ironic or fearful and sarcastic.

Speech contains various levels of information that can be described as:-

Linguistic - direct expression of meaning

Paralinguistic - may indicate attitude or membership of a speech community

Non-linguistic - may indicate something about a speaker's vocal physiology, state of health or emotional state

Paralinguistic aspects of speech are those aspects that are not strictly linguistic, but which contribute to the meaning of an utterance. Paralinguistic features may help to indicate a speaker's attitude, although this may overlap with emotional aspects of speech.

Another paralinguistic aspect of speech are those features that indicate a speakers membership of a speech community. These are effectively sociolinguistic markers of speaker identity. eg. Australian versus New Zealand pronunciations, styles of speech of farmers versus bankers, etc.

Gender has both paralinguistic and non-linguistic aspects. Some features may be regarded as more masculine or feminine by a particular speech community (eg. degree of pharyngealisation in Arabic)

But, features that are purely a consequence of physiological differences are nonlinguistic aspects of speech

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

64

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

A speaker's emotional state is often evident in the speaker's voice. These features are linguistic to the extent that they are relevant to the meaning of the current utterance. On the other hand, our current emotional state might be a non-linguistic undertone to what is being said (ie. if its not very relevant to what's being said).

Segmental and suprasegmental features of speech are both affected by linguistic, paralinguistic and non-linguistic forces.

The main acoustic correlates of prosody (rhythm, intensity and fundamental frequency) are also correlates of paralinguistic and non-linguistic phenomena, particularly emotion.

Schools of Prosody

There have been many theoretical approaches to prosody. The earliest such schools dealt with the metrical structure of poetic verse (eg. the ancient Greeks).

Often the British and American approaches to prosody are contrasted, but this dichotomy is a simplification of the diversity of theoretical and experimental perspectives.

BRITISH SCHOOLS

Crombie (1987) listed the following three British approaches to intonation:-

syntactic approach

affective or attitudinal approach

discoursal approach

Crombie (1987) states that the British schools have the following elements in common:-

"dividing the flow of speech into tone groups or tone units ( tonality)"

"locating the syllables on which major movements of pitch occur ( tonicity)"

"identifying the direction of pitch movements ( tone)"

British schools tend to focus on pitch contours or tunes whilst American schools tend to focus on pitch levels. Different tunes are associated with different meanings.

Central to British models of prosody is the idea of the "tone group".

A tone group is a sequence of speech dominated by prominent or accented word. The accented word is the focal point for the tonal characteristics of the tone group. It contains the strongest, most prominent syllable (usually its primary stressed syllable).

As an example of a British school we will examine the approach of Michael Halliday and Systemic-Functional linguistics.

"It is not enough to treat intonation systems as if they merely carried a set of emotional nuances ... English intonation contrasts are grammatical" (Halliday, 1967)

In contrast, Pike (1945), a founder of the American school said that intonation "... is merely a shade of meaning ... superimposed upon ... intrinsic lexical meaning according to the attitude of the speaker".

A consequence of Halliday's view of intonation was that being a part of grammar it should be analysed in the same way as other grammatical systems. Halliday utilises the British concept of tunes which extend across a section of text. These tunes have a "nucleus" which is the "first (salient) syllable in the tonic foot".

Tonality, according to Halliday, is related to the number of tone groups in an utterance and each such tone group is seen as one "move" in a speech act. Tone is "... a complex pattern built out of a simple opposition between certain and uncertain polarity." (Halliday, 1967:30)

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

65

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

Halliday describes 5 simple and 2 compound primary tones for English. They are:-

Tone 1 - falling

Tone 2 - high rising

Tone 3 - low rising

Tone 4 - falling-rising

Tone 5 - rising-falling

Tone 13 - falling plus low rising

Tone 53 - rising-falling plus low rising

Some examples:-

Tone 1 (falling) "That's a dog." - statement

Tone 1 (falling) "Is Fido a dog?" - question with known polarity

Tone 2 (rising) "Are you coming?" - I don't know if you are coming but want to know. cf. Tone 1 (falling) "Are you coming?" - this is a bit more like a command.

Tone 3 (low-rising) "I think I'll come tomorrow." - but not really sure.

Tone 4 (falling-rising) "Bill is coming if he's allowed." - conditional statement.

Tone 5 (rising-falling) "You ought to know that."

AMERICAN SCHOOLS

American schools of prosody are often described as relying on a phonemic or levels approach to intonation. For example, Bloomfield (1933) referred to "differences of pitch ... as secondary phonemes". (but note that Bloomfield, like the British, used pitch contours rather than pitch levels).

Pike (1945) used:-

pitch heights to characterise intonation contours (contours are sequences of pitch height)

a systematic approach to speaker attitude

the interdependence of intonation, stress, quantity, tempo, rhythm and voice

quality

Pike (1945) utilised four levels of pitch because "four levels are enough to provide for the writing and distinguishing of all the contours which have differences of meaning so far discovered." "These four levels may, for convenience, be labeled extra-high, high, mid and low respectively..." (Pike, 1945)

SENTENCE-STRESS OR ACCENT

Some words sound more prominent -- they 'stand out' to a greater extent than others.

The relative prominence of words depends very much on how the intonation is associated with the words, or with the text, of the utterance. Above all, the same string of words can be accentedin different ways.

[marianna made the marmalade]

[marianna made the marmalade]

PROSODIC PHRASING

The same set of words can be broken up into prosodic phrases in different ways. At the boundaries between prosodic phrases we often hear a change in the rhythm of the speech or a pause.

[marianna] [made the marmalade]

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

66

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

INTONATION

The same set of words can be associated with any number of different tunes that are signaled by the rise and fall in pitch -- there is always one tune for each prosodic phrase

[marianna made the marmalade?]

How do we hear accented words?

One of the main reasons why we hear certain accented words as prominent is because ofintonation. Specifically, a speaker synchronises a unit of intonation known as a pitchaccent with the vowel of the primary stressed syllable of each word that is accented. We represent this as follows:

Another unit of sentence stress is known as the nuclear accent. The last accented word in any prosodic phrase is nuclear accented.

(Prosodic phrase is still to be defined: assume that there's one prosodic phrase above that extends from the beginning to the end of the sentence).

Prosodic phrases

Every utterance consists of one or more prosodic phrases.

In every prosodic phrase, there is one (and only one) nuclear accented word. You can often hear if an utterance has more than one prosodic phrase because:

You can sometimes hear a pause between intonational phrases

A speaker 'slows down' at the end of a prosodic phrase which makes the last syllable a bit longer (known as phrase-final lengthening).

There can be a marked change in pitch either at, or just before the end, of a prosodic phrase.

We cannot fully describe English intonation without reference to speech rhythm.Prosodic components (pitch, loudness, tempo) and speech rhythm work, interdependent-ly. Rhythm seems to be a kind of framework of speech organization. Linguists sometimesconsider rhythm as one of the components of intonation. D.Crystal, for instance, viewsrhythmicality as one of the constituents of prosodic systems [1969].

Rhythm as a linguistic notion is realized in lexical, syntactical and prosodic meansand mostly in their combinations. For instance, such figures of speech as sound or wordrepetition,

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

67

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

syntactical parallelism, intensification and others are perceived as rhythmicalon the lexical, syntactical and prosodic levels.

Speech rhythm has the immediate influence on vowel reduction and elision. Form words such as prepositions, conjunctions as well as auxiliary and modal verbs, personaland possessive pronouns are usually unstressed and pronounced in their weak forms with reduced or even elided vowels to secure equal intervals between the stressed syl-lables, e.g.

Come and `see me to`morrow.

None of them `was `any `good.

The markedly regular stress-timed pulses of speech seem to create the strict, abruptand spiky effect of English rhythm. The English language is an analytical one. This factorexplains the presence of a considerable number of monosyllabic form words which arenormally unstressed in a stretch of English speech. To bring the meaning of the utteranceto the listener the stressed syllables of the notional words are given more prominence bythe speaker and the unstressed monosyllabic form words are left very weak. It is often reflected in the spelling norm in the conversational style, e.g.

I'm sure you mustn't refuse him.

Speech rhythmis traditionally defined as recurrence of stressed syllables at moreor less equal intervals of time in a speech continuum. We also find a more detailed definition of speech rhythm as the regular alternation of acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation and intensification, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar elements within a speech event. In the present-day linguistics rhythm is analysed as a system of similar adequate elements. A.M. Antipova [1984] defines rhythm as a complex languagesystem which is formed by the interrelation of lexical, syntactic and prosodic means.

It has long been believed that the basic rhythmic unit is a rhythmic group, a speechsegment which contains a stressed syllable with preceding or/and following unstressedsyllables attached to it. Another point of view is that a rhythmic group is one or more words closely connected by sense and grammar, but containing only strongly stressedsyllable and being pronounced in one breath, e.g. Thank you→ The stressed syllable isthe prosodic nucleus of the rhythmic group. The initial unstressed syllables preceding thenucleus are called proclitics, those following the nucleus are called enclitics, e.g.:

The 'doctor 'says it‘s not quite serious = 1 intonation group [4 rhythmic groups]

			Table 12.1
ðә 'dɔktә	'sez its'	nɔt kwait	siә.ri.әs
1st rhythmic	2nd rhythmic	3rd rhythmic	4th rhythmic
group	group	group	group
proclitics	enclitics	enclitics	enclitics

According to the other viewpoint the unstressed syllables in between the stressedones tend to join the preceding stressed syllable. It is the so-called enclitic tendency. Thenthe above-mentioned phrase will be divided into rhythmical groups as follows, e.g.

Negro Harlem | became the | largest | colony of | coloured people

To acquire a good English speech rhythm the learner should: 1) arrange sentencesinto intonation groups and 2) then into rhythmic groups 3) link every word beginning witha vowel to the preceding word 4) weaken unstressed words and syllables and reduce vow-els in them 5) make the stressed syllables occur regularly at equal periods of time.

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

68

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

Maintaining a regular beat from stressed syllable to stressed syllable and reducingintervening unstressed syllables can be very difficult for Russian learners of English. Their typical mistake is not giving sufficient stress to the content words and notsufficiently reducing unstressed syllables. Giving all syllables equal stress and the lack of selective stress on key/content words actually hinders native speakers' comprehension.

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

69

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

Lecture 13.English literary pronunciation in British Isles and in the USA

Дәріс мақсаты: Британ аралдары мен АҚШ-та қолданылатын айтылу түрлерін қарастыру.

It is common knowledge that between 375 million people now speak English astheir first language / mother tongue. It is the national language of Great Britain, the USA,Australia, New Zealand and Canada (part of it).

English was originally spoken in England and south-eastern Scotland. Then it wasintroduced into the greater part of Scotland and southern Ireland. In the 17thand 18thcenturies it was brought to North America (mainly from the West of England). Later in the18th and 19th centuries English was exported to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa owing to the colonial expansion. A flow of emigrants who went to invade, explore andinhabit those lands came mostly from the south-eastern parts of England.

English became wide-spread in Wales at about the same time. Welsh English isvery similar to southern English, although the influence of Welsh has played a role inits formation. Then in the 20th century American English began to spread in Canada,Latin America, on the Bermudas, and in other parts of the world. Thus nowadays twomain types of English are spoken in the English-speaking world: English English andAmerican English.

According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A. Hughes and others [Hughes, Trudgill 1980; Trudgill, Hannah 1982] the following variants of English arereferred to the English-based group: English English, Welsh English, Australian Eng-lish, New Zealand English; to the American-based group: United States English, Canadian English.

Scottish English and Irish English fall somewhere between the two being somewhatby themselves.

Table 13.1

			British English Accents
	English English			Scottish English
	Southern	Northern
			Welsh			Northern
	1. Southern	1. Northern		Educated
					Regional	Ireland
			English
				Scottish
	2. East	2. Yorkshire				English
					Varieties
				English
	Anglia
		3. North
	South-West	West

English English

Roughly speaking the non-RP accents of England may be grouped like this:

1.Southern accents.

a.Southern accents (Greater London, Cockney, Surrey, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire);

b.East Anglia accents (Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire;

c.South-West accents (Gloucestershire, Avon, Somerset, Wiltshire).

2.Northern and Midland accents.

a.Northern accents (Northumberland, Durham, Cleveland);

b.Yorkshire accents;

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

70