16.Differentiation

What is Differentiation? To differentiate instruction is to recognize students (S) varying backgr. knowledge, readiness, lang., preferences in learning, interests, and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to approach teaching and learning for S of diff. abilities in the same class. The intent of DI is to maximize each S’s growth and indiv. success by meeting each S where he or she is, and assisting in the learning process. T can differentiate Content, Process, Product. We can also diff. accord. to S’s Readiness, Interests, Learning Profile.

Content is what the T wants the S to learn and materials and mechanisms through which it is accompl. Process describes active-s designed to ensure the S use key skills to make sense out of essential ideas and info. Product is the form through which S demonstr.and extend what they have learnt. Readiness is a S’s command of a particular understanding or a skill. Interest refers to a C’s curiosity or passion for a particular topic or skill Learning profile may be shaped by intelligence preferences, gender, culture or learning style.

The basis for differentiated learning is good instruction. T do not assume that all S need a given task or segment of study, but continuously assess S readiness and interest, providing support when S need additional instruction and guidance, and extending S exploration when indications are that a S or group of S is ready to move ahead. Flexible grouping is consistently used. In a differentiated class, S work in many patterns. Sometimes they work alone, somet. in pairs, somet. in groups. In a differentiated classroom, whole-group instruction may also be used for introducing new ideas, when planning, and for sharing learning outcomes. S are active explorers. T guide the exploration. Because varied activities often occur simultaneously in a differentiated classroom, the T works more as a guide or facilitator of learning than as a dispenser of info. Instructional strategies that support D: 1)Stations are diff. spots in the classroom where S work on various tasks simult.: they can be formal and informal, can be distinguished by signs, symbols, colours. 2) Agenda – is a personalized list of tasks that a particular S must complete in a specified time. 3) Complex instruction allows for discovering S’ intellectual strengths and assignment of status: traditional cooperative learning often fails because S know who is ‘good at school’ and delegate responsibility to them (asking probing ?s, represent. ideas symbolically etc.). 4) Orbital studies mean that S do independent investigations which revolve around one facet of the curriculum. T help students develop a clear ? for study, a plan for research, a method of presentation. 5) Centers differ from stations in that centers are independent from each other. A T may create a science centre, a writing and an art centre. 6) Tired activities–tasks of diff size, level of complex. T regulates the tasks which answer readiness and learning profile of a S. 7) Learning contracts: an appr. which creates an opport. for S to work independently on material that is largely T-directed. It’s an agreement b/w T and S that gives S some freedom in acquiring skills and competencies that the T considers important at a given time. 8) Compacting: encourages T to assess S before beginning a unit of study or develop. of a skill. 9) Problem-based learning: the T presents S with an unclear, complex problem; then S must seek additional info., define the problem, make decisions about solutions. 10) Group investigation. 11) Independent study. 12) Choice boards: changing assignments are placed in permanent pockets. By asking a S to make a work selection from a particular row, the T targets work toward S need and at the same time allows S choice. 13) Portfolios. How to start: assess S before you begin teaching a skill or topic; try creating one differentiated lesson per unit; differentiate one product per semester; give S more choices about how to work, how to express learning or which homework to do; give thoughtful directions: start the class with a familiar task; once students settle in, meet with one small group at a time to give directions for differentiated tasks; work with students at being good listeners; Establish carefully organized and coded places where students should place completed assignments; teach them to work for quality.

1.ESP

David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:

English as a restricted language

English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

English with specific topics.

The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language.

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'. The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions.

Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)

Absolute Characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves

3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.

Variable Characteristics

1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English

3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level

4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.

5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

Main Problems: 1) ESP is sort of long-term investment – students start using their language competencies after 2-3 years, since ESP is as a rule limited to 1-2 years;

2) ESP hours are rare and far between, which hampers continuity and requires a special mode of lesson-planning;

3) most language acquisition comes through self-access, and students just won’t practice on their own;

4)It is difficult to decide how specialized the course content must be; the teacher is not an expert in the field; on the other hand, students simply do not need a course of linguistics!

5) proficiency of students at the entry stage might vary quite a lot: ESP cannot be effectively taught to absolute beginners; better students are not engaged even at the keep-up level.

There is at least one practical solution to every problem. Give your suggestions.

Course organization principles:

1) Start with needs analysis (placement tests, questionnaires, working out individual educational programmes, handing out test tasks, credit tasks, reference in advance);

2). Concentrate on variety when making scripts (of medium, class organisation, learner roles, activities, focus on skills, variety of topic) – to meet individual requirements of miscellaneous students, many of which have had a frustrating language learning experience;

3). Achievement testing should be integrative and give students an opportunity to exploit subject-specific vocabulary in a problem-solving task;

4) ESP requires team-teaching at certain stages;

5). Scripts should be coherent and based upon short-term objectives; product-oriented approach is preferable.

Stages of Development of ESP methodology. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries.

ESP methodology in the course of its development went through 5 distinct stages as to what was taken for content basis:

1).register analysis as concept of special language. Teaching materials at this initial stage took specific features of register as syllabus components; e.g. compound nouns, The Passive, Conditionals, Modal Verbs. Language practice as a result was mostly imitation and reproduction at sentence level;

2).beyond sentence or discourse analysis: the concern of research was to identify the organizational patterns in texts and single out linguistic form of the patterns, e.g. making a recommendation, reporting past research, definition, comparison and contrast, etc. The typical teaching materials based on this approach taught students to recognize textual patterns and do text-diagramming exercises;

3).target situation analysis: it was introduced by John Munby; the aim was to enable learners to function adequately in a target situation. Course materials were based upon practicing standard situation dialogues;

4).Skills and Strategies: in terms of materials this approach puts an emphasis upon reading and listening strategies;

5).Needs analysis: before this stage syllabus was describing what people do with the language within their professional field. Stage 5 caters for needs of learners to make the course intrinsically motivating.(Field specific texts do not guarantee motivation!) In order to select course materials there should be investigation of prior learning experience of students, there should be variety, integration of 4 skills, research activities, problem-solving tasks etc. Materials and their use; planning a lesson.

Engineering texts might be too boring to generate motivation; what is needed is probably handicrafts, describing a mechanism and in general able to meet the following prerequisites:

* It should be relatively new to your students;

* It should be somehow related to the field;

* It should allow for attainment of new lexis;

* It should preferably deal with a specific problem (e.g. whether the device described would work or not; science popular magazines are ideal for the purpose

* Testing is aimed at awareness or understanding level; it is ideal when the text is necessary for follow-up projects, hands-on tasks, extensive round table discussions etc.

Motivation factors directly depend on analysis of prior learning experience (number and professional competence of teachers, opportunities for out-of-class experience, subject knowledge. ESP is intrinsically integrative.

Some may argue that the In. of the 4 skills diminishes the importance of the rules of listening, reading, speaking, writing that are unique to each separate skill. Such an argument rarely holds up under careful scrutiny of integrated-skill courses. Content-based teaching: - the 1 of the 5models of integrated-skills approaches. C.-b. language teaching integrates the learning of some specific subject-matter content with the learning of a 2nd language. C.-b. t. presents some challenges to language teachers. Allowing the subjects matter to control the selection and sequencing of language items means that you have to view your teaching form an different perspective. You are 1st teaching geography or math or culture; 2ndarily – language. In some schools a subject-matter & a language teacher link their courses & curriculum, so that each complements each other. C.-b. instruction allows for the complete integration of language skills. As you plan a lesson around a particular sub-topic of your subject matter area, your task becomes one of how best to present that topic(4skills are involved).

Theme-based teaching provides an alternative to what would otherwise be traditional classes by structuring a course around themes or topics. Th.-b. curricula can serve the multiple interests of students in a classroom, can offer a focus on content. The major principles: the automaticity p., the meaningful learning p., the intrinsic motivation p., the communicative competence p. ELS textbooks offer th.-b. courses. They catch the curiosity & motivation of students with challenging topics. For ex. environmental awareness.

Some th.-b.activities:1)use environmental statistics& facts for classroom reading, writ., debate. 2)conduct research& writing projects.3)have students create their own environmental awareness material4)conduct field trips that involve summary& conclusions. Field trips can be made to recycling centers, factories that practice it.5)create games that use the environmental crisis.

Experiential learning gives students concrete experiences through which they discover language principles by error, by processing feedback in order to become fluent. Ex.-lear. Techniques tend to be learner-centered by nature. Examples of student-centered ex.- tech. include: hands-on projects, computer activities, research projects, role-plays& simulations. Ex.-lear. Tends to put an emphases on the psychomotor aspects of language learning by involving learners in physical actions into which language is reinforced. The episode hypothesis. John Oller: text will be easier to reproduce, understand, recall to the extent that it is structured episodically. The presentation of language is enhanced if students do not get disconnected series of sentences thrown at them, but rather sentences that are interconnected in an interesprovoking episode. Ep. hyp. relates to integrated-skills teaching. Ways:1)episodes challenge the teacher& textbook writer to present interesting, natural language to students.2)ep. can be presented in written or spoken form. It requires written, spoken skills.3)students can be encouraged to write their own ep.4) their ep. might be dramatized in the classroom be students.

Task-based teaching is an overall approach, the importance of organizing a course around communicative tasks that learners need to engage in outside the classroom. David Nunan gives char-cs of t.-b. t.:1)an emphasis on leaning to communicate through interaction in the target language.2)the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. T.-b. teaching- distinction b|n target tasks(students must accomplish beyond the classroom) &pedagogical tasks(form the nucleus of the classroom activity).