1. Терроризм и ядерное оружие.

Terrorism - deliberate violence or the threat of violence directed at innocent non-combatants and governments to cause fear systematically to attract media attention for causes which may be political or ideological or religious and which are viewed as coercive (насильств.).

- Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.

- The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause.

- The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose.

- The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.

Types of terrorism:

- State Terrorism (when a State acts as a terroristic group; ex. Nazi Germany)

- Bioterrorism (intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians)

- Cyberterrorism (use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause)

- Ecoterrorism (new term; violence in the interests of environmentalism; sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries in spheres of fur, logging, animal research laboratories, for example)

- Nuclear terrorism (refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.)

Nuclear terrorism is the most dangerous form; it could lead to unpredictable consequences. A number of institutions were created to protect the world from it:

- IAEA (Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibits its use for military purposes. Carries out control over the nuclear objects all around the world with help of special commissions)

- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (limits the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons; opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China)

Nuclear weapons:

- Uranium based (enrichment level 80-90% (for nuclear plants 2-4.5%), 45-50 kg minimum)

- Plutonium based (ex. Nagasaki bomb: 8kg Pu-239)

2. Акционерный капитал. Виды ценных бумаг. Способы привлечения капитала. Паевые инвестиционные фонды.

Company shares can be bought when a firm starts trading or issues more shares, or when other investors are selling their shares.

If a company makes a profit, some of it is shared among the share and debenture holders.

Some types of shares are a gamble, some are less risky.

Debentures

- not shares but direct loans to a company

- fixed interest (not depending on company’s profit)

- are always paid first (before shareholders)

- may be bought and sold on the Stock Exchange

Preference shares

- fixed rate of interest (if the company has made enough profit to paу it)

- paid after debenture holders, before ordinary shareholders

- return gua¬ranteed as long as there’s a profit

- voting rights limited (little control over the company)

Cumulative preference shares

- if profit is not enough in any year to pay the full interest it is made up to cumulative preference shareholders in later years when money is available

Ordinary shares (eqиities)

- paid after preference shareholders

- dividend directly depend on profits

- largest risk

- considerable voting rights (more control of the business)

Blue chip shares

- in well-known companies with reliabIe and efficient management

- carry less risk than other ordinary shares

Deferred shares (founders shares)

- paid last of all what may be left over from the profits

- strongest voting rights (often held by the people who started the company) and give more control over the firm and its directors

Rights issue

- extra shares offered to existing shareholders at a price below that which they would fetch on the market

- shareholders may sell their 'right' to buy these shares

- are good investment (because of low cost)

Unit Trusts – organizations that enable people with limited savings and little financial knowlege to invest in а wide range of stocks and shares without paying high Srock Exchаnge charges. The Trust managers offer Units for sale directly to the public: with the money received they buy shares in many companies and/or Government stocks.

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