№1.Use of article with countable nouns(c.n) general rules

c.n. in sg with a/an (nominating f-n) with the (individ). In pl.O article or the

Limiting (the) descriptive a/an, something ‘’the’’ (depend on a situation)

a best suit (выходной костюм)a best seller –set phrases

some adj, adj pr-s are limiting : right (тот кот. нужен) wrong,very,only main,principal,central,left,,right,same,present.

!An only child – set phrase!

c.n.modif.by next & last are generally used with ‘’the’’

-modif.by numerals

*Cardinal numerals serve as descriptive

*Ordinals are normally limiting,but in the meaning’’one more’’,’’another’’-a/an (they must have a 3 race= another one)

!the third chapter,but chapter 3!

-modif.by participles

*In the pre-position-usually descriptive

-If ‘’the’’ is used in case it’s accounted for by the context or situation

*In post – position either descrip. or limit. (depend on situat.)

-modif.by ing-forms:

*In preposit. Usually descrip.

*In post-posit. Either limiting or descrip.(can be prepositional & non-prepos.)(the thought of leaving her…)

-modif. By infin:

*Usually descriptive (an attempt to smile)but can be limit (situation)(the money to buy car)

-modif.by clauses:

Two kinds of clauses: attributive & appositive

*Att. qualify the noun, introduced by who,whose,which & that

-Att. that can be removed from the sent. without destroying the mean. always descriptive

-Att. closely connected with the sent, can’t be removed-may be descriptive or limiting.(I took a pen that John gave me)

*App. disclose the mean of a noun. modify only certain abstract nouns such as idea.feeling,hope,thought,sense & the like

Introduced by ‘’that’’ (he had the feelling that …) Usually limiting

-modif. by noun in the common case

*Usually such attributes are descriptive (a/an)

*Sometimes they can be limiting(the) (the Whitehall light)

-modif. by noun in the genitive case

Specifying genitive: we use article according to the general rules

Classifying(descriptive):refers to the head noun according to the general rules(a mile’s distance)

-modif. by prepositional phrase

’of phrase’ (descriptive!!!)

limiting such as: the house of my neighbor , the development

of a science & so on

1)quality

2)Quantity or measure

3)composition(a group…)

4)material (a wall of glass)

5)content (a cup of tea)

6)age(a boy of 16)

7)size(a man of middle height)

8)comparison

BUT

*Если единсвен. носитель признака:The president of a country…

*Если есть много предметов,отноящихся к дом.предмету:a member of a club

*Sometimes the choice of an/a or the depend on a meaning:

A figure of a soldier-фигура,похожая на фигуру солдата

The figure of a soldier-фигура определённого солдата

№2)From a syntactic point of view, we can recognize 3types of adverbials in English: namely adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts.

Adj. provide inf-n about the circumst-s in which the event took place (time, place, reason, manner, etc.), or modify the meaning of the whole, or part of the proposition: After saying goodbye, she walked hesitantly towards the door.

Time adj are used to specify various temporal characteristics of the event or sit-n represented by the clause, such as its location or extension in time.

Place adjuncts are used to specify the location of an event or a sit-n. Under the heading process adjuncts we may gather several subcategories which specify various imp. characteristics of the action expressed by the verb phrase:manner, instrument, means, and agent. Similarly, under the heading contingency adjuncts we may gather four imp. categories:reason, purpose, condition,concession.

Degree adjuncts are used to indicate the intensity of the verbal action, either strengthening it or weakening it(John needed the money badly).

Viewpoint adjuncts are used to specify a particular point of view from which the proposition is to be seen (Scientifically, the project was a huge success).

Disj:

Modal disj-s(She may possibly be at home.);

Style disj-s are used to expr. the speaker’s comment on how the message is worded or how the utterance is to be interpreted.

Comment disj-s (You know; As I keep saying; you see).

Conj-s can be used to expr. the semantic relat-ship between propositions: comparison (similarly, likewise), contrast (on the other hand), concession (however, nevertheless), reason (therefore, because of that), result (consequently, in consequence, as a result). Conj-s can be used to indicate the organization of a text: addition (in addition, furthermore), enumeration (first, secondly, finally), transition (by the way; meanwhile, in the meantime).

№3

The simple t., formed using the "ind. aspect", do not inform us whether the activity is finished or on-going.( I walk my dog every day.)

A verb in the ind. aspect inform us that the beginning or ending of an activity is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of the sent.

The cont. t. are formed with the progressive aspect.This aspect indicates that an action or state, past, present, or future, was, is or will be unfinished at the time referred to.The cont.s aspect is formed by the auxiliary verb "to be" and the -ing form (the present participle).

Usage

1.We use the simple t. to describe things that are always true, or situations that exist now and will go on indefinitely(Liz plays the violin brilliantly)2.To talk about particular actions or events that have begun but have not ended at the time of speaking, we use the cont. t.(The car isn't starting again)3. We often use time expressions such as at the moment, at present, currently, just, and still to emphasise that the action or event is happening now-cont.4. We use the simple t.to talk about habits or things that happen on a regular basis(I leave work at 5.30 most days)5. when we describe repeated actions or events that are happening at or around the time of speaking, we use the cont. t.( I'm hearing a lot of good reports about your work these days)6. We can use cont. or simple t.to describe something that we regularly

do at a particular time(We usually watch the news on TV at 9.00. (= we start watching at 9.00); We're usually watching the news on TV at 9.00. (= we're already watching at 9.00)7. We use cont. to imply that a situation is or may be temporary(Banks lend money to make a profit, (this is what usually happens); Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand, (implies atemporary arrangement)8. We often use simple with verbs that perform the action they describe(I admit I can't see as well as I used to. (= an admission). Other verbs like this include accept, acknowledge, advise, apologise, assume, deny, guarantee, hope, inform, predict, promise, recommend, suggest, suppose, warn.9. We often prefer to use simple rather than cont. with verbs describing states(I really enjoy travelling). Other common state verbs include agree, assume, believe, belong to, contain, cost, disagree, feel, hate, have, hope, know, like, look, love, own, prefer, realise, regret, resemble, smell, taste.

10.But! we can use cont. with some state verbs when we want to emphasise that a situation is temporary.( I consider him to be extremely fortunate. (This is my view) and I'm considering taking early retirement. (This is something I'm thinking about now)11. With some verbs used to describe a temporary state (e.g. ache, feel, hurt, look (= seem)), there is little difference in meaning when we use simple and cont.(What's the matter with Bill? He looks / is looking awful)12. We use cont. when we talk about changes, developments, and trends(I'm beginning to realise how difficult it is to be a teacher)13. When we want to emphasise that smth is done repeatedly, we can use cont. with words like always, constantly, continually, or forever. Often we do this when we want to

show that we are unhappy about it, including our own behaviour(He was forever including me in his crazy schemes)

#4 So

We can use so instead of repeating an adjective, adverb, or a whole clause:The workers were angry and they had every right to be so. (= angry)

We often use so instead of a clause after verbs concerned with thinking, (appear/seem (after 'it'), assume, believe, expect, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose, think, and also after say and after tell (with an object): I found the plan ridiculous, and said so. (- that I found the plan ridiculous)

Notice that we don't use so after certain other verbs, including accept, admit, agree, be certain,

claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise, suggest, be sure

In negative sentences, we use not or not...so: They want to buy the house, although they didn't say so directly.

We can use so in a short answer, instead of a short answer with 'Yes, ...''Jack and Martha are here.' 'So they are.' (or Yes, they are.) (= I can see that, too, now)

We use do so instead of repeating a verb + object or verb + complement when it is clear from the

context what we are talking about. We can also use does so, did so, doing so, etc.: When he was asked to check the figures, he claimed that he had already done so.

We can use so followed by an adjective or an adverb and a that-clause in sentences such as:

The recipe was so simple that even I could cook it.

We use so...that to link a CAUSE with a RESULT

The train was so slow (that) I was almost two hours late.

Too

Before an adjective or another adverb we use too when we mean 'more than enough' or It's too hot to stay in this room - let's find somewhere cooler

We can use an inf.structure after too+adj/adv./determiner

He’s too old to work

Before adj. without nouns & before adv. We use too? Not too much: You’re too kind to me.

It’s not normally used before adj.+noun: I put down the bag because it was too heavy.

Too in the meaning ‘more than enough’'more than is wanted or needed’: It was too cold to go out, so we stayed at home.

After mentioning an affirmative fact or idea, we can add a related negative idea by using not…too: You can have an apple, but you can’t have an orange too.

Either

We can use either before a sg. noun to mean ‘one or the other’: Come on Tuesday or Monday. Either day is OK.

After mentioning a negative idea or fact, we can add another negative point by using not….either: Peter isn’t here today. John isn’t here either.

We can also use not…either in the meaning ‘not also’ with normal word order: I can’t swim .I can’t either.

Either=each, esp. in the expressions on either side/at either end: There are roses on either side of the door.

We can drop a noun which has already been mentioned & use either alone: Would you like tea or coffee? I don’t mind. Either.

We use either…or to talk about a choice between 2 possibilities(sometimes more than 2):

I don’t speak either French or German.

Neither

We use it in the meaning ‘not one and not the other of two’: Can you come on Monday or Tuesday? I’m afraid neither day is possible.

We can use neither alone, without a noun or pronoun: Which one do you want? Neither.

Neither of+ plural: Neither of my brothers can sing.

We can use neither and nor as adverbs to mean ‘also not’: I can’t swim. Neither can I.

Neither …nor is used to join 2 (or more) negative ideas: I neither smoke nor drink.

When sg.subjects are connected by neither…nor the verb is normally sg., but it can be pl. n a less careful style: Niether James nor Jinni was/were at home.

Both

We can put both after pronouns used as objects: She invited us both.

When both refers to the subject of a clause, it can go with the verb in mid-position: We can both swim.

Both+adj(nouns,verbs)+and+adj(nouns,verbs): She’s both pretty and clever.She both dances and sings.

Both of

We use both (of) when we want to talk about two things together.

Both (of) the houses have now been sold.

We don't usually make negative sentences with both (of). Instead we can use neither (of):

Neither of them knew the answer, (rather than Both of them didn't know the answer.)

We don’t use the before both: Both the children (not: the both children)

We can use both of fol.by the obj.form of the pronoun: Both of them can come tomorrow.

#5)Modality is expression of speaker’s attit. to what his utterance denotes. The speaker’s judgment may be of different kinds, that‘s, the speaker may expr.various mod.meanings. M. verbs unlike other verbs, don’t denote actions or states, but only show the attit.of the speaker towards the action. These m.verbs may show that the action (or state, of process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered etc. M.verbs occur only with the infinitive. it is imp.to realize that “m.verbs” have no meaning by themselves/ A m.verb such as would has several varying functions; it can be used, for ex. to help verbs express ideas about the past, the pres.& the fut. It’s therefore wrong to simply believe that “would is the past of will”: it’s many other things.

5)Modal verbs show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expre-d by the inf. in comb-n with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus m.v. may show that the action (or state, or process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered. There are 12 m.v. in Еng:can, may,must,should,ought, shall, will, would,need, dare,to be,to have(to have got). Some features characteristic of other verbs:1)they do not take -s in the third person singular;2)they have no verbals,so they have no analytical forms;3)they have(except for can and may)only one form and no past tense;4)they are followed(except for ought)by a bare inf);5)they need no auxiliary to build up the interrog. and neg. forms. Meanings:Ability (can /could,be able to); Obligation-обязательство(ought to; have to; must); Requests (Can(informal)/Could(polite);May(formal);Might(very formal) ;Will(informal));Possibility(can/could;may/might);Necessity(must;haveto;need);Prohibition/ Duty(can not/could not;must not;may not;have to;ought to);LogicalAssumptions(could have don;must have done); Permission(can(informal)/could;may/might;must);Offers/Suggestions(Wouldyou like;Shall;Can)Advice(should; had better;Shall;ought to

№8.The use of intensifiers so&such, quite&rather, too&enough

So & such(s&s): so+adj/adv; such+noun or such+adj+noun(!such a, not a such!)

S&s make the meaning of adj/adv more stronger: we have such a nice day(=really nice)

We can say so…that or such…that: the 1^st dish was so good that we… But!we can leave out that: the dish was so good we…

We use s&s in the meaning ‘like this’:the house was so untidy.I’ve never senn such a mess(=a mess like this)

!no such! There is no such thing(=thisthing doesn’t exist)

Expressions: so long, but such a long time; So far, but such a long way; So many(much), but such a lot(of)

Quite & rather: quite has 2 meanings: less than ‘very’, but more than ‘little’ and ‘completely’

Quite goes before a/an & may be used without a noun

Rather is similar to quite, but we use it with negative words or ideas(rather cold)

If it is used with positive it means ‘unusually’ or ‘surprisingly’(e.g. Ann didn’t like the book, but I found it rather interesting(=more interesting, than I expected)

Rather goes before or after a/an: a rather inter. Book or rather an inter. book)

Quite in the mean. ‘completely’ is used especially with adj: sure, certain, right, wrong, true, safe, clear, obvious, different, unnecessary, incredible, extraordinary, amazing, impossible

Too & enough: we use enough after adj/adv, before noun or without noun(e.g. do u need money? no, I’ve got enough)

Too – opposite to enough

Too/enough…for snb/smth, but enough/too…to do smth(not ‘for doing’)

Вопрос №6.Present Perfect vs Past Indefinite-basic difference. Phrases & verbs which resist being used in Present Perfect.

Past Simple	Present Perfect
The Past Simple is used for actions which happened in the past & are not related to the present.	The Present Perfect is used for actions which happened in the past & are related to the present.
We use the Past Simple: ●For an action which happened at a definite time in the past. The time is stated, already known or implied. Simon Cook painted his first picture in 1980.	We use the Present Perfect: ●For an action which happened at an unstated time in the past. The exact time is either unknown or unimportant & therefore it is not mentioned or implied. Simon Cook has painted a lot of pictures.
●For an action which began & finished in the past. Mr. Clark taught Maths for thirty years. (He is no longer a teacher. He has retired.)	● For an action which started in the past & continues up to the present. Mrs. Nelson has taught French for twenty years.(She started teaching French twenty years ago & she is still teaching French today.)
● For an action which happened in the past & cannot be repeated Mike won more than twenty medals when he was an athlete.	● For an action which happened in the past & may be repeated. Ben is an athlete. He has won more than ten medals.
● For an action which happened within a specific time period which is over at the moment of speaking. I wrote three letters this morning. (The time period is over.)	● For an action which happened within a specific time period which is not over at the moment of speaking. I’ve written two letters this morning. (The time period is not over.)
Note! We use the past simple to talk about actions which were performed by people who are no longer alive, even if the time is not stated. Charles Dickens wrote ‘Oliver Twist’.
Similarly, it is the Past Indefinite that is used in questions introduced by when.When did you actually arrive?
The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning with where and how when they refer to the past events. Where did I leave my hat? How did he get in?	ThePresent Perfect is not common here because the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind.
In special questions beginning with interrogative words other than those mentioned above (e.g. who, what, why, what ... for and other), both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite are possible. The choice depends on the meaning to be conveyed (передать). If reference is made to an action which is past or definite in the minds of the people speaking, or if there is a change of scene, the Past Indefinite is used; if reference is made to an action which is still valid as part of the present situation, the Present Perfect should be used. Dorothy's gone to a garden party." "I know. Why haven't you gone too?" Why didn't you speak to my father yourself on the boat?
Adv. Modifiers: Yesterday, the other day, last week Expr. Just now. I saw you come in just now.	Expr. just. I have just hired a new pianist.

!!!Verbs of sense perception & motion such as to hear, to see, to come, to arrive, to return in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Present Indefinite & resist being used in Present Perfect.

I’m sure he recognized the poem when he hears the first line.Я уверен, что он узнает стихотворение ,когда услышит первую строчку.

When the completion of the action is emphasized, the present perfect is used.

He will know the poem by heart when he has heard it twice.

Он будет знать стихотворение наизусть, когда дважды прослушает его.

!!!In the following cases the Present Perfect is not used.

-Что вы сказали? -What did you say?

-Теперь я понял. –Now I understood.

7.The infinitive

General notion

The inf. is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way.Has a special marker, the particle to.the inf. has 3 gram. categories, those of tense, voice, and aspect

The infinitive developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties. Thus in modern English the infinitive, like the participle and the gerund has a double nature, nominal and verbal.

I.The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested in its syntactic functions. The infinitive can be used:

1)As a subject of a sentence.

To go on like this was dangerous.

2)As a predicative.

Her plan was now to drive to Bath during the night.

3)As an object.

I have never learnt to read or write.

II.The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:

1)The infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object.

He began to feel some curiosity…

2)Can be modified by an adverb.

I cannot write so quickly.

3)The infinitive has tense and aspect distinctions.

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	To write	To be written
Continuous	To be writing	------
Perfect	To have written	To have been written
Perfect continuous	To have been writing	------

The tense and aspect distinctions.

1)The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, so it may refer to the present, past or future.

I am glad to meet you.

I was gad to see Mr. Paul.

Mr. Black will be glad to see you.

2)The Continuous Infinitive also denote an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, but it is an action in progress. Thus the continuous infinitive is not only a tense form but also an aspect expressing both time relations and the manner in which the action is presented.

They happened , at the moment, to be standing near a small shop at the end of the street.

3)The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

I am glad to have seen you.

After to mean, to expect, to intend, to hope used in the Past Indefinite we use Past indefinite to show that the hope or intention was not carried out.

I meant to have gone there.

The same meaning can be conveyed by the Past Perfect of the finite verb followed by the indefinite infinitive.

I had meant to go there.

4)The Perfect Continuous infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb. It is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form.

For about ten days we seem to have been living on nothing bit cold meat.

The voice distinction

The infinitive of transitive verbs has special forms for the Active and Passive voice:

It is so glorious to love and to be loved.

In sentences with the construction there is the infinitive of some verbs can be active or passive without any change in meaning:

There is no time to lose.

There is no time to be lost.

Infinitive constructions

I.The Objective-with-the-infinitive Construction –I saw him cross the street

In which the infinitive is in predicate relations to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. – Complex object.

I have never seen him lose his temper.

Use without to after verbs of:

Sense perception : to see, to hear, to watch, to observe, to notice, to feel.

Verbs of compulsion: to make, to have.

After verb to let.

Peculiarities

1.If a process – Part. I Indefinite Active is used.

We watched them playing football.

2.If the meaning is passive Part. II is used.

He heard his name pronounced.

3.After to see – to understand, to hear – to learn, to be told a clause is used.

He heard that young Burton got married.

4.After to see, to notice a clause is used with the verb to be.

He saw that she was pale.

Use with to after verbs of:

Mental ability: to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to find, to understand.

After the verbs to think, to consider, to find the Infinitive may be missing.

We consider him a cruel person.

Denoting declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

Denoting wish and intention: to wish to desire, to want, to intend, to mean.

Denoting feeling and emotion: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear.

Denoting order and permission: to order, to allow.

It is possible only if the infinitive is passive; if the object is lifeless thing.

II.Complex subject – the rider was seen to disappear in the distance.

Use After the verbs denoting:

Sense perception: to see, to hear.

If a process – Participle I

Mental activity.

With Make.

With verbs to say, to report.

With to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With to seem, to appear, to happen, to chance, to prove to turn out

Peculiarities

The Infinitive in the sentences with the Complex subject connot refer to a future action exept: to expect, to be sure, to be likely, to be certain.

1.The for-to-infinitive Construction

The construction can have different functions:

2.Subject

It is a shame for people to spend so much money this way.

3.Predicative

That was for him to find out.

4.Complex object.

He waited for her to speak.

5.Attribute

There was nothing for him to do.

6.Adverbial modifier

-Of purpose

Не stepped aside for me to pass.

-Of result

He spoke loud for you to hear.

9. The use of articles with proper nouns

Names of persons:

-generally used without articles,

-names of persons denoting the whole family are used with the definite article,

-names of person which denote a represent. of a family are used with indef art.

(Florence will never, never be a Dombey)

-names of persons modified by a particulazing attribute are used with the def article.

(you are not the Andrew Manson I married )

-a/an is used before mr/mrs/miss + surname when we refer to an unfamiliar person.

(There is a Mr. Smith waiting for you(нейкий))

-names of persons used as common nouns take the article according to the general ruleon the use of article.

Geographical names:

Geogr names are used without articles(London, France… but the Hague, the Netherlands, the Caucasus, the Argentine, the Sudan, the Vatican city,the Crimea, the Ucraine) the same when a geographical name is modified by an attribute in pre-position: Soviet Russia, North America….

• Geographic names modified by a particulazing attribute are used with the def art.

(the Philadelphia into which Frank Algernon Cowperwood was born, was a city of two hundred and fifty thousand mln)

• With names of oceas, seas, rivers the def art is used

• Names of lakes do not take the article if the word lake is used(lake Ontario, the Ontario)

• With the names of mountain chains the def article is used (the Urals, the Alps) with the names of mountain peaks no article is used(Elbrus, Everest)

• With names of group of islands the def art is used (the Bermudas) With names of single islands the is no article

• Names of streets and squares are used without article(Oxford street, Trafalgar square, but the High street, the Main Street, the Strand)

Hotels, ships, newspapers, magazines:

Usually used with def article(The Ritz/, The Bounty, but Newsweek)

№10 Sequence of tenses

In certain types of sub. claus. the tenses are used relatively but shows whether the action of the sub. clause is simult. with the action of the princ.clause, precedes it or follows it.The choice of the tense form in the sub. clause depends on the tense form used in the princ. clause. This structurally dependent use of tenses is known as the rules of the seq. of t.

The relative use of t. is mainly observed in sub.obj. cl.

1.After one of the past forms in the princ. cl. we find past forms in the sub. cl. a)simult-Past ind.,Past cont.( Nobody knew what he meant.)

b)the action of the obj. cl. precedes that of the princ. cl.-Past perf.,Past perf. Cont.( He was finally telling them what he had been concealing)c)–follows-Fut. In the Past(She knew that George would be waiting for her.) 2.if one of the present forms is used in the princ. cl.. a)Simult.-Pres.ind.,pres.cont.( I am beginning to think you're a fool.) b)Precedes-Pres.perf.,past.ind.,Pres.perf.cont.,past.cont.( I don't want her to see I've been crying. I don't see why he did it.) c)Follows-fut.forms(I expect she'll be ringing up again very shortly. I don't know how I'm going to do it.)3.if one of the fut. forms is used in the princ. cl. a)Simult-Pres.ind.,pres.cont.( Sir Walter will tell you that I'm not exaggerating.)b)Preceeds-pres.perf.,past.ind.( I never liked the idea and I'm not going to say I did.) c)Follows-fut.forms(We'll let you know what we are going to do about it.)

The rules are violated.

1. In present-time contexts after a past form in the principal cl. when reference is made to the actual pres. time(a)( I told Lewis that we're worried about Myrtle.),the actual past time (b)( I think you said you came in a taxi.) or the actual future time (c)( I came to tell you that I'll vote against you.) This is found In dialogues (in plays, novels, stories) and also in newspaper and ra- dio reports.

2. After a past form in the princ. cl. when the speaker believes that he is dealing with facts, statements or opinions which are true of all times, are a kind of general truth.-Pres.ind. in obj.cl.( You made me understand what love really is.)

3. With certain modal verbs having only one form, e.g. must, should, ought and need.( I wrote that I must see him. I didn't think you need worry.)

№17

Set expr.with articles

In a hurry,to have a mind to do smth.(иметь желание..),to fly into a passion(прийти в бешенство),to get into a furry(прийти в ярость),to take a fancy to(проникнуться симпатией),in a low voice,a great many(много),it’s a pity(shame,pleasure),as a result,at a glance(сразу),to be at a loss.

It’s out of the quest.,to take the trouble to do smth(потрудиться),in the original,to play the piano,to keep the house,on the whole,the other day,on the one hand,to tell the truth,to be on the safe side(для верности)Without art. Out of doors,to take to heart,take offence(обижаться),give permission,loose heart(терять мужество),at present,from morning till night,from head to foot,from beginning to end,by chance,by mistake,at first sight,for ages,for hours,by land(air,sea),at work,at peace,by name,in dept.

Predicate.

1.as a pred.noun is used with*the* if the speaker states that the object belongs to a certain class.2.if it’s modified by individ.attribute-*the*(he is the student u want to speak to)3.if noun denotes a post which can be occupied by one person at a time-*the*,*_*(mr.Smith is manager,not under-manager any longer.Severin is the dean of our faculty)

4.after *turn,commerce,appoint,elect*-*_*(Shakespeare commenced actor-начинал как)5.when the noun is followed by *enough*-*_*(she isn’t fool enough to believe…)6.when a predicative noun in an adverb.cl. of concession is placed at the head of the cl.-*_*(child as he was,David understood that…)7.*son,daughter*modified by an of-phrase-*the*(lomonosov was the son of a fisherman)

Apposition

1,2the same as predicate(1.I want to introduce u to Jylja,a great friend of mine.2.Julja,the studend u have mentioned,has come)

3.if the noun denotes a well-known person or work of art-*the*(Pushkin,the great Russian poet,died in 1837)

4.But!if it’s not widely known-*a*(Pericles,a comedy of shakes.,…)

5.the same as 3 predicate(professor Petrov,director of the Medical institute,…)Address-*_*Place of art.

Usually before the noun,attribute.But!

1.After *both,all*(Both the stories were interesting)

2.After *so,too,as*+attribute(it was as black a house inside as outside)

3.After*quite,such,what*-*a*

4.After or before *rather*(…in rather a delicate position..,they stop a rather heated look)

#11 Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something without stating the actually number. Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?" Quantifiers must agree with the noun.

Quantifiers are used at the beginning of noun phrases: 1before a noun on its own:.fewer answers 2.before an adjective and noun: some useful phrases 3.before an adverb, adjective and noun: every really pleasant experience

Definite q. These are one-before a count noun sg., 2,3,4 etc.-before a count noun pl.( one hundred, two thousand,5 million); with mass nouns,definite quantities can be indicated as: 20pieces of paper,12bottles of milk,2kilos of rice...

Indefinite q. There are 3 main types of quantifiers. Quantifiers that are used with countable nouns((a)few,fewer,the fewest,a (great numb.of,many,several); quantifiers that are used with uncountable nouns( a bit of, (a)litlle,less.a great deal/amount of,much) and the 3rd type are quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns or uncountable nouns(all,plenty of,a lot of,lots of,enough,more,most,some,any)

Many, much, a lot of a large quantity of something; many is used only with C nouns, much with U nouns and a lot of can be used with both. Many and much tend to be rather formal in use and are therefore often found in legal documents, academic papers and so on; in speech we often use phrases like a lot of, loads of, tons of, hundreds of.

Any before countable and uncountable nouns usually in questions and negative sentences:

Do you have any coffee? I can't remember any songs.

If we stress the word any heavily when speaking, we are suggesting an unlimited choice from a range of things or an unrestricted quantity; in questions and negatives: Help yourself to any sandwiches. I can't see any difference. (nothing at all)

Some positive counterpart to any in many circumstances. I have some coffee.

Like any it is used before both C and U nouns, and means an indefinite quantity but not a large amount. In requests,offers where we often use some to mean a small amount of a known quantity:

Would you like some cake? Could I have some biscuits instead?

a few/a little - means that there are not a lot of something, but there is enough.

There are a few apples. I know a little English. I have a little money.

*few/little - means that is not enough of something. There are few apples. There are not enough apples.

There are few people. There is little money. We can't buy a lot of expensive food.

12)Case-the form of the nouns wh.shows the relation of the n. to other words in the sent.

Common(child)Genetive(the child’s brother)

A noun in the gen.c. generally precedes another noun wh. Is it’s head-word.This may be called the dependent gen.The relations b\n n.& it’s head-w. may be of 2 kinds:1)n.may denote a part.person or thing-my mother’s room.This kind is called the specifying.They can mean:-possession-Mary’s cat-subjective gen.-the boy’s answer-gen.of origin-the girl’s story-obj.gen.-the boy’s punishment.It may be replaced by an of-phrase:father of the boys2)n.may refer to a whole class –classifying gen.-sheep’s eye, cows milk.It’s not replaced ex. The gen. indic. Time&distance-a 3 day’s absence-an absence of 3 days in one's mind's eye- мысленно, в уме a pin's head- головка булавки a needle’s eye- игольное ушко

to one's heart's content- к … полному восторгуfor goodness' sake at one's wit's end- в замешательстве,

out of harm's way- в безопасности, от греха подальше duty's call- чувство долга a needle's point- острие иголки at death’s door- на пороге смерти at arm’s length- на вытянутую руку at a stone’s throw to move at a snail’s pace- двигаться как черепаха for old acquaintance’s sake- ради старой дружбы

Вопрос №13. Modal verbs “to be to”, ”to have to”, “shall”, “will”, ”would”, “dare”, “need”

Are used to show the speaker’s attitude toward the action or state

●“to be to”

1)a previously arranged plan or obligation resulting from the arrang.(+,?;pr, past;+ simple inf.)

We are to discuss it next time.

Is he to arrive tomorrow?

The past tense of the verb to be to + Perfect infinitivean unfulfilled plan.

I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together.

2)orders and instructions, often official (frequently in report- ed speech), (+,?;+ simple inf.)

I just mention it because you said I was to give you all the details I could.

3)something that is destined to happen,(= cуждено; +,?;+ simple inf.; It is mainly found in the past tense and its application is limited to narration.)

He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come.

4)possibility,(= can/may;+,-,?; pr, past; + passive inf )

Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metro pole. Where is he to be found? Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.

Set phrases: What am I to do? (Что мне делать? Как мне быть?) What is to become of me? (Что со мной станется? Что сомной будет?)

Where am I to go? (Куда же мне идти? Куда же мне деваться?)

●“to have to”( have (has) got to)

To have to as a modal verb is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms as well as the verbals.

He is always having to exercise judgement.

I shall have to reconsider my position.

He has got to go right now.

-,? to do.

He did not have to tell me that he already knew.

Did he have to tell them about it?

Obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances(приходится, вынужден; +,?,-;+simple inf)

He had to do it. Did he have to do it? He did not have to do it.

“-” absence of necessity You don't have to go there. (Вам не нужно/нет необходимости идти гуда.)

Set phrase had better (to): They had better not play cards.

●“shall”

2^nd,3d person - obligation formal or even archaic style and is mainly found in subordinate clauses, i.e. it is structurally dependent It has been decided that the proposal shall not be opposed.

1)promise, threat, warning (+,-;+ simple inf.)

You shall have my answer tomorrow.

2) “?” –1^st,3d pers. to ask after the will of the person addressed (+simple inf.)

Shall I get you some fresh coffee, Miss Fleur? (Принести вам еще кофе?)