Verbal character.:

1)can take a direct oject(e.g. he start tasting soup)

2)can be modif. by an adverb

3)has tense & voice distinctions

Tense & voice distinctions:

Simultenious action: Indef. Gerund Active(passive)

(e.g. I hate being on sick leave; I had a feeling of being watched)

Prior action: Perfect Gerund Active(passive)

(e.g. it serves you right having disobeyed me; I’ve never heard of the house being painted since he left)

!after to remember, to thank, to forgive, to exuse & on, after, without denote a prior action

!after to need, to want, to deserve, to require & adj worth – gerund in active form, though the

meaning is passive.

Predicative construction with gerund:

f-n: a complex object(it’s no use telling me not to worry),a complex predicative(what annoyed me the most was his being invited there regularly),

a complex subject(I was irritated with him having been in an awkward position), a complex the attribute(I don’t like the idea of Mary’s going home),

a complex adverbial modifier(I stayed at the party in spite of her having told me the sad news)

!in the predicative gerundial construction the gerund usually refers to subjects of it’s own!

Verbal noun vs gerund: although formed in the same way as the gerund, the verbal noun is another part of speech and has no verbal character.

Gerund Verbal noun

Voice&correlation + -

The plural form - +

Direct object + -

Of-phrase attribute - +

Adjectival attribute - +

Adverbs as a modif. + -

Articles - +

Verbs, typically used with gerund: to stop, to avoid, to deny, to excuse, to fancy, to finish, to forgive, to mind, to suggest, to postpone, to go on, to keep on…

19)Adjectives-a word exp. a quality of a substance. Simple( new) derived(manlike)&compound(well-known)

1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly. They have degrees of comparison.

e.g. great, cold, beautiful, etc.

Relative adjectives describe qualities of a substance through relation a) to materials,e.g. woolen, wooden

b) to place, e.g. Italian, European c) to time,e.g. daily, weekly d) to some action.e.g. wonderful, light, cold,

They have no degrees of comp. Many adj.may function either as descriptive or limiting, depending on the head-word or the context. Thus a little finger may denote either a small finger or the last finger of a hand.In the first case little is descriptive, in the second it is limiting. Degrees of Comparison: 1)-er and -est) is used for:a) monosyllabic (односложный) adjectives: new - newer – newest b) disyllabic (двусложный) adjectives ending in –er, -ow, -y, -le, -som. clever – cleverer – cleverest c) disyllabic adjectives with the stress on the second syllable:polite – politer – politest more and most) is used for:a) most disyllabic adjectives or adjectives of more than twosyllables:beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful

b) adjectives formed from participles or -ing forms:tired – more tired – most tired interesting – more interesting – most interestingc) adjectives used predicatively:afraid – more afraid – most afraid Irregular Forms of Comparison- bad worse worst, many near late far old

Sust.adj.-have acquired some or all of the charact.of the noun.-they wholly(all the charact.of n.,namely the pl.form, gen. case, associated with art.they become nouns-a native, the natives a native’s hut,patially(acquire only some of the charac. of the n. with def.art.,denote a whole class-the poor,or abstract notions-the good

A Russian-russians-wholly the English the French-partially.

№42.Parenthesis

The independent elements of the sentences are words and word-groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.( interjections, direct address, parenthesis)

A parenthesis either shows the speaker-s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes that which is said in the sentence. A parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is separated from it by commas ore dashes.

A parenthesis can be expressed by:

1. Modal Words, such as indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in fact, truly, naturally, surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, evidently, obviously, maybe

Evidently he was not a man; he must be some other kind of animal

2. adverbs which to a certain extent serve as connectives, such as firstly, secondly, finally, thus, consequently, then, anyway, moreover, besides, still, yet, nevertheless, otherwise, notwithstanding, therefore

He was losing money. Furthermore, he had sweated to make the truck comfortable for them

3. Prepositional phrases, such as in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, by the by, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least

Everybody has his own problem. Mine is practically worthless, for instance

4. Infinitive and participial constructions.

The infinitives as parenthesis:

To cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell, to say the least, to tell the truth, to speak the truth, to put it mildly ( crudely), to say nothing of, to be quite frank, so to speak, strange 9 needless0 to say, to make matters worse,

Participle as parenthesis:

We mainly find here the verbs ‘to talk’ and ‘to speak’. It serves to denote some sort of reservation on the part of the speaker or else it is used as an introductory phrase, meaning ‘incidentally’. (In Russian- кстати)

Generally speaking, judging by appearance (words), mildly speaking (saying), speaking frankly, speaking, saying nothing of, roughly speaking, strictly speaking, talking about…,

#18 Phrasal verbs

Many English verbs can be followed by prepositions or adverb particles. A good dictionary will tell you if a particle is a preposition or adverb and explain the meaning of 2&3-word verbs. Some verbs and prepositions\particles are regularly used together (look at,listen to,stand up). These combinations are rather like 2or3-word verbs & often called ‘phrasal verbs’ in grammar. Many of them are idiomatic: I gave up chemistry,because I didn’t like it. Many of these verbs are esp.common in informal speech & writing: Compare:Just keep on till you get to the crossroads(inf.) Continue as far as the crossroads.(formal)

Usage:

Some verbs are commonly used with an adverb + preposition. These are three-word verbs:

They'd sold out of washing powder at the supermarket. (= it had all been sold)

Verb + particle + noun phrase

1 With some two-word verbs (verb + preposition), the noun phrase goes after the particle:

The back door opens onto a small garden.

2 With other two-word verbs (verb + adverb), a noun phrase usually goes after the particle

unless the noun phrase is a pronoun:

She followed out the instructions exactly, (rather than ...followed the instructions out...)

Verb + noun phrase + particle

With a few two-word verbs (verb + adverb), a noun phrase is usually placed or must be placed

before the particle:Don't forget to pull the door to when you go out. (not ...pull to the door...)

Verb + particle + noun phrase or verb + noun phrase + particle

With some two-word verbs (verb + adverb), a noun phrase can go either before the particle or

after it. Compare:Buying the new car has eaten up all my savings, or Buying the new car has eaten all my savings up.

verb + noun phrase + particle when the noun phrase is a pronoun:

Pam had to get rid of her car, and she sold it off at a very low price, (not ...sold off it...)

verb + particle + noun phrase when the noun phrase is long. Compare:

She had to clean the kitchen up and She had to clean up the mess on the kitchen floor.

Verb + adverb + preposition + noun phrase

With most three-word verbs, the noun phrase goes after the preposition:

He really looks up to his older brother.

A few three-word verbs have the noun phrase immediately after the verb. A second

noun phrase will go after the preposition:

She tried to talk me out of the plan. (= persuade me not to do it)

№20. There are to ways in which we can use a noun group: 1) the specific way of referring to smth. or smb.( it is clear about whom or what it is spoken about) – The man began to ran towards the boy. 2)The general way of referring to smb. or smth.(it is spoken of smth. of a particular type) – There was a man in the lift. In order to distinguish between them we use determiners. They are divided into specific and general determiners. Determiners are used at the beginning of a noun group.

When you want to refer to a quantity of things or to an amount of smth. you usea quantifier. – I am sure both of you agree with me. All quantifiers consist of two or more words, bec. ‘of’ is needed in every case. ( all of, any of, numbers of, a few of, a little of, a great deal of etc.).

21. The participle is a non-finite form of the verb.There are two forms- participle I and participle II. Part. I is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. The verbal character of participleI is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perf. and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other non-finites, it may combine:a) with a noun or a pronoun as direct, indirect or prep.object; b) with an adverb or a prepositional phrase as an adverbial modifier; c) with a noun or adjective as a predicative. Part.I is used as a pure verb form in the formation of the continuous aspect forms. The adj. and adv.features of participle I are manifested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modifier. The category of perfect in part. I finds its expr-n in the contrast of the non-perfect and perfect forms.The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by part.I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb. Thus the time-reference of the action expressed by part.I can be understood only from the context, that is it is not absolute, but relative. The perfect form of part.I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to that denoted by the finite verb. Part. I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has voice distinctions, which are realized in the contrast of active and passive forms. Part.I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I passive denotes an action directed towards it. Part.I performs the syntactical functions characteristic of the adj. and the adv., and can therefore be used as attribute, predicative, or as adverbial modifier.It may be used (a) alone or (b) as headword of a participial phrase, or else (c) as part of a predicative construction:a) Let sleeping dogs lie.b) There are some other people waiting for you.c) We found him working in the garden.

Part. II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their morphological categories.Voice. Part. II of transitive verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form,is always passive in meaning. The passive meaning of part. II may be of three types:1) denoting an action directed towards the person or non-person expressed by the subject or object.- I won’t have my friend laughed at. 2) denoting a state, which is the result of an action.- The problem is solved. The door is shut. 3) denoting a pure state.- I felt annoyed when he refused to help me. Part. II of intransitive verbs is always active in meaning. The use of these participles is restricted. Only part. II of verbs denoting motion or change of state can be used as attributes.

As part of the sentence participle II may stand alone or be the headword of a participial phrase. It may function as an attribute(close or detached),predicative, or as an adverbial modifier.

22. Indirect questions.If the direct speech is a pronominal question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal clause by the same pronominal word (pronoun or adverb) as used in direct speech. In this case it is treated as a conjunctive word. The word order in the object clause becomes direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its synonyms to want to know, to wonder, etc. She asked who it was. She wanted to know why he had not come.The person to whom the direct speech is addressed is usually mentioned either in the sentence itself, or in a broader context, or else is understood from the situation. In indirect speech it is expressed in the object to the verb introducing indirect speech. She asked the boy where he had come from. If the direct speech is a general question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunctions if or whether. The word order in the object clause is direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its synonyms.He asked me if (whether) I had told Frank.

22.Indirect questions. limitation on the order of indirect and direct questions.

Word order in an indirect quest. is the same as in a statement

An indirect general quest. is introduced by the conj. if or whether

An indirect special quest. is introduced by the same adv or pronoun that introduces a direct quest.

In a direct quest. to the subj. contains the link verb to be, the direct order of is not strictly observed

e.g. he asked ‘who is that man?’ he asked who the man was or who was the man

indirect quest. are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style – to inquire is used