WORD-GROUPS AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1. Lexical Valency and Collocability
Words in speech are put together to form phrases or word-groups (word combinations, word collocations) which are self-contained lexical units. A word-group is a sequence of two or more lexemes which are united by certain syntactic links (agreement, government, adjoinment). A word- group like a word is a two-facet lexical unit which is used to give names to things. Like a word it is a nominating unit. But it differs from a word by its structural separateness. Therefore word groups are mainly observed on the syntagmatic level of analysis.
Word-groups differ as to the degree of structural and semantic cohesion. Some word groups, e.g. by the way, point of view, so to speak, etc. seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable and are usually referred to as set-phrases, fixed expressions, lexical phrases, idioms or phraseological units. These are lexical units and they are regarded as the subject matter of phraseology. The component members of other word-groups possess greater semantic and structural independence, e.g. a good idea, a year ago, interesting to read, etc. Word-groups of this type are defined as free or variable word-groups or phrases and are habitually studied in syntax.
Words come together in certain contexts, i.e. they are characterized by valency and collocability. Valency is the potential capacity of words to occur with other words, it is the word's combining power. Collocability is realization of this ability in actual speech. Knowledge of valency is essential for language speaker and learner; it enables the speaker to combine words in sentences correctly which makes communication possible. For example, if a speaker wants to use the word problem in speech, he must know its valency, i.e. that this word collocates with the adjectives acute, difficult, major, pressing, serious, vital, petty, insoluble, minor, ticklish, involved, thorny, delicate, etc. with the verbs cause, create, pose, present, tackle, bring up, raise, resolve, settle, solve. Besides valency and collocability linguists of descriptiv ist trend distinguish distribution of the word, i.e. is the total environment in which it occurs [Harris 1952:15-16].
As D.Collins points out, the lexical items involved in a collocation are always to some degree mutually predictable. "All mature native speakers use such sequences as commit a murder and not, say, commit a task, even though ihe sense of 'carry out' would be applicable in the latter case" [Collins 1958:162]. Collocations with a high degree of predictability become clichés, e.g. put forward a question, win a victory, etc.
There are distinguished lexical and grammatical (syntactical) valency / collocability. The examples above illustrate lexical valency. Grammatical valency is the aptness of the word to be used in certain grammatical, or to be more exact, syntactical patterns. Grammatical valency of the word problem can be expressed by the following patterns: AN (A - adjective, N - noun), VN (V - verb). So grammatical valency is distinguished on the level of classes of words (parts of speech).
There exist certain norms and limitations of lexical and grammatical valency. Limitations depend on 1) extra-linguistic factors, i.e. those which belong to relations and state of things in objective reality. A well-known example of a sentence by N.Chomsky Colourless green ideas sleep furiously seems meaningless because it does not reflect relations of real life; 2) linguistic factors, which reflect linguistic norms and standards.
Limitations on lexical collocability can be exemplified by synonyms, for instance, verbs lift and raise are interchangeable as synonyms but only raise correlates with the noun question: to raise a question. Sometimes deviations from norms of collocability are used for stylistic and expressive purposes. Such usages can be illustrated by the following example from K.Vonnegut; When 1 was younger - two wives ago, 250, 000 cigarettes ago, 3,000 quarts of booze ago...(Cat's Cradie). According to the norms of lexical valency the adverb ago collocates with nouns expressing time: a week ago, three days ago, etc. However, in K.Vonnegut's example these norms are violated: two wives ago, ...cigarettes ago, ...quarts of booze ago.
Such synonyms as to offer, to propose, to suggest illustrate norms of grammatical valency/collocability. All the three verbs collocate with nouns and pronouns used as objects (to offer a job, to propose a plan, to suggest a compromise). Verbs to offer and to propose collocate with infinitives (they offered to compromise, 1 proposed to leave early), but the verb to suggest, governs -ing forms (He suggested our leaving) or a subordinate clause (He suggested that we should leave).
Specific linguistic limitations on lexical collocability are also revealed in comparison of correlated word combinations in different languages: Rus. комнатные цветы - англ. pot flowers, on grammatical collocability: влиять на человека, на выбор - Engl, to influence a person, a choice. If deviations from lexical norms are possible for reasons of expressiveness, deviations from grammatical norms of valency/collocability are impossible, otherwise our speech will be grammatically incorrect. One cannot say in Russian *влиять человека, as well as in English *to influence on a person.
Some properties of word-groups can serve as criteria of distinguishing them from phraseological units. Free or productive word-groups are produced in speech each time anew according to norms of word collocability. The meaning of a word-group is motivated by meanings of its components, though it is not a mere sum of meanings of these components. One more salient feature of free word groups is the possibility of substitution of their components. For example, in the word group an interesting book the lexeme interesting can be substituted for by good, new, exciting, boring, etc., also the word book - by film, game, play, journey, etc.
Some word-groups acquire stability and get the names of set-phrases or clichés, e.g. put forward a question, win a victory.
To set-phrases belong expressive colloquialisms: good for you, well done, never mind, a sight to see, etc.; terms: blank verse, great vowel shift, direct object, etc.; political clichés: summit meeting, round-table conference, bilateral agreement, etc.; emotionally and stylistically neutral collocations: in front of, as well as, a great deal of, etc. However, there is diversity of views concerning such combinations of words. Some linguists refer them to phraseological or phraseomatic units (see the next section), or they occupy an intermediate position between free word-groups and phraseological units.