4. Origin of phraseological units
There are various ways and sources of the origin of PhUs in the English language. As any lexical item they can be either native English by origin or borrowed from other languages.
The majority of PhUs in English are native English. In most cases the creators of them are unknown. Native English PhUs reflect traditions, customs, beliefs of English people, and also myths, historical facts, personalia. For example carry coals to Newcastle 'carry the goods to the place where there are plenty of them', play fast and loose 'play an unfair game, act irresponsibly' (this PhU goes back to an old folk game, which was popular at market places in England), blue stocking (one admiral from Holland called the members of one literary society 'the gathering of blue stockings' because one of scientists appeared there in blue stockings), show the white feather "get frightened' (a white feather in a fighting rooster's tail was a sign of bad breed. In England and Australia the one who received a white feather was considered a coward. It was usually sent to people evading military service.).
Some PhUs originated from the names of people, both well-known and common: Tom, Dick and Harry 'anyone, just an ordinary person', Sally Lunn 'infml. a sweet bun' (originates from the name of a female confectioner), according to Cocker 'according to rules' (Cocker is the author of a text-book on arithmetics in the XVII cent.), Queen Ann is dead! 'iron, it was known long ago'.
One of the sources of PhUs is professional activity. Many PhUs are associated with the sea and the life of seamen: to sail under false colours 'to pretend to be what one is not, strike sail 'give in, yield', to be all at sea 'to be in a state of ignorance and bewilderment'; military sphere: draw sb's/the en- emv('s) fire 'cause sb. to concentrate attack, criticism, etc. in a particular direction', fall into line 'agree with sb.); sports: hit below the belt 'break rules, be unscrupulous as to the means', etc.
Many native English PhUs are of literary origin. The majority of them come from Shakespeare's writings: to one's heart's content 'as much as one wants', cakes and ale 'material comforts, merry-making', the salt of youth 'enjoyable living, the zeal of youth, eat sb. out of house and home, 'to ruin sb. living at his expence', a fool's paradise 'illusory happiness, the world of dreams, give the devil his due 'be just in one's assessment of even an untrustworthy person', the green-eyed monster 'jealousy', etc.
Other writers who contributed to the stock of phraseological units are J.Chaucer: through thick and thin 'through good times and bad times', murder will out 'every bad deed will become known'; J.Milton: fall on evil days 'suffer privations; J.Swift: all the world and his wife 'many people, everyone without exception', quarrel with one's bread and butter 'quit the job that provides means of existence'. The creator of the PhU a skeleton in the cupboard 'sth. shameful in one's family which is kept concealed' is W.M.Thackeray; catch/take sb. red-handed 'discover, capture sb., while he is doing sth. wrong' was created by W.Scott; many PhUs were introduced into the language by Ch.Dickens: right as a trivet 'quite healthy', never say die 'don't despair' and many other PhUs created by various writers [Kunin 1996: 217-223].
PhUs borrowed from other languages entered English phraseology through both literary sources and oral contacts with other nations. The most important source of borrowed phraseology is the Bible. The idioms borrowed from the Bible are quite numerous, they are fully assimilated borrowings. Among more frequently used are forbidden fruit 'sth. that is desired because it is forbidden or disapproved of, the root of all evil 'money', the olive branch 'the token of peace and quiet', new wine in old bottles 'new contents in the old shape', a wolf in a sheep's clothing 'a person who appears to be friendly, or harmless, but is really an enemy or evil-doer', cast pearls before swine 'pay much attention or do good things to undeserving people', can the leopard change his spots'?' 'some people cannot change some of their habits or manners, behaviour', pride goes before a fall 'pride is a sin that leads to a collapse'.
Another important source of literary borrowing of PhUs is ancient mythology, history and literature. Well-known are the following PhUs: the lion's share 'the largest and portion of sth.', open Pandora's box 'bring about a host of troubles previously unknown or under control', the apple of discord 'a reason for quarrel', an Achilles' heel 'a weakness or fault which may not be known but which when discovered can be used to damage or destroy sb.', a Trojan horse 'a disguised means of introducing sth. harmful or disadvantageous', a bed of roses 'happy careless life', etc.
One of the sources of phraseological borrowing are fairy-tales of various people and authors: an ugly duckling 'a child, chick, puppy, etc. born less attractive than his brothers or sisters who later surpasses them' (known from a fairy-tale by H.C.Andersen), Alladdin's lamp 'a thing of magic which fulfills every wish of its master', etc.
Due to many-folded contacts with French people there came a lot of PhUs from French: kings have long arms 'powerful people can reach anyone anywhere', the game is not worth the candle 'the profits gained from sth. are not worth the trouble', Buridan's ass 'a man who cannot choose between two equal objects', the fair sex 'women', let's return to our muttons 'let's return to the previous point', etc.
Examples of PhUs borrowed from other languages: German: speech is silvern, silence is golden, storm and stress 'the period of excitement, stress in social and political life', blood and iron 'ruthless employment of force', etc.; Spanish: blue blood 'aristocracy', the fifth column 'the secret enemy's aids', etc.; Russian: the Sick Man of Europe 'originally Turkey, at present any European country in a difficult economic position'; Italian: every dog is a lion at home', Chinese: lose/save face 'suffer/avoid a humiJiating loss of prestige', etc.
Professor A.V.Kunin singles out Americanisms among PhUs. They also are subdivided into those which emerged due to various contacts and through literary sources. Examples: feel/look like a million dollars 'to feel and look fine', go places 'travel', cut a pie 'interfere', shoot Niagara 'run risks', change/swap horses (in mid-stream) 'transfer (unexpectedly or awkwardly) one's preference for another'. The creator of this idiom is A.Lincoln. Of literary sources mention should be made of PhUs: the last of the Mohicans (F.Cooper) 'a man possessing some rare qualities', the call of the wild 'the compulsion to go and live in undeveloped regions' (J.London), smoke the pipe of peace 'make peace', etc.
Explain whether the semantic changes in the following phraseological units are complete or partial.
To wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve; a wolf in a sheep’s clothing; to fly into a temper; to stick to one’s word, bosom friend, small talk; to cast pearls before swine; to beat about the bush; to add fuel to the fire; to fall ill; to fall in love; to be at sea.
Classify these phraseological units according to Koonin’s and Vinogradov’s classifications.the dogs of war
to cheat the gallows
to beat sb. at his own game
Blood is thicker than water
one’s cup of tea
Much expected where much is given
a nice/pretty kettle of fish
Goodness gracious!
to walk on air
Trojan horse
a closed book
Say what structural variations are possible in the following phraseological units. If in doubt, consult the reference book.
to catch at a straw
a big bug
the last drop
to build a castle in the air
to weather the storm
to get the upper hand
to do wonders
to run a risk
just the other way about
to get sb. off the hook
to give the game away
to have not enough room to swing a cat
a drop in the bucket
State the source of the following units.
the Trojan horse
Achilles heel
still life
Buridan’s ass
labour of Hercules
the apple of discord
blue blood
forbidden fruit
Aladdin’s lamp
the serpent in the tree
an ugly duckling
the fifth column
a bed of roses
for sb’s fair eyes
a green light
to hide one’s head in the sand
small potatoes
Complete these similes using the words given bellow. Translate them into Russian.
as dull as… as surly as… as bold as… as right as…
as merry as… as silent as… as cold as… as large as…
as fit as… as cool as… as sure as… as hungry as…
as green as… as true as… as safe as… as happy as…
cucumber, needle, a grig, the grave (post, stand), steel, a hawk, Solomon, bone (nails), thieves, a fiddle, water, the Northern Star, a goat, the poles apart, ditch-water, rain, honey, life, sin, Ned Kelly, a bee (a cockroach on a hot stone), ice (stone, key, charity), a hog, a gun (fate, death), the Bank of England, a picture, a peacock, a judge, the day, a lark, brass, grass, a bear, the day
Read the following proverbs and comment on them. Find the Russian and Belarusian equivalents to them if possible.
And what are proverbs but the public voice?
As the people, so the proverb.
The wisdom of many, the wit of one.
Proverbs are children of experience.
Give the English equivalents of the following proverbs and phraseological units. Explain their meaning.
читать между строк
смотреть сквозь розовые очки (видеть все в розовом свете)
дрожать как осиновый лист
вставлять палки в колеса
платить той же монетой
положить конец чему-либо
пускать дым в глаза
куй железо пока горячо
затишье перед бурей
между двух огней
не все то золото, что блестит
игра не стоит свеч
нет розы без шипов
играть с огнем
привычка – вторая натура
Give the proverbs from which the following phraseological units have developed.
Birds of a feather; to catch at a straw; to put all one’s eggs in one basket; to cast pearls before swine; a bird in the bush; to cry over spilt milk; the last straw.
Read the following joke. What proverb is paraphrased in it?
Dull and morose people, says a medical writer, seldom resist disease as easily as those with cheerful disposition. The surly bird catches the germ.