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Relative units

1 ,6
																												0 .5 m M
1 ,4
																												5 m M
1 ,2
1
0 ,8
0 ,6
0 ,4
0 ,2
0

8 0 1 2 0 2 1 0 3 6 5 days

Fig.2. Alteration of the sensitivity of spleen lymphocytes of mice exposed to low doserate gamma-radiation under the action of hydrogen peroxide. The data are presented as the ratio of the values obtained for the experimental animals to the values for the control animals.

Thus, the increase in the level of DNA breaks registered by the method of DNA comets seems to be most likely due to the increase of breaks arising in the course of chromatin functioning rather than to the increase in the number of breaks of oxidative nature. Plausible explanations may be the following ones: activation of DNA excision repair, structural rearrangement of chromatin, induction of compensatory proliferation of lymphocytes. One cannot exclude a simultaneous occurrence of these processes.

The mutagenic effect of low dose-rate gamma-radiation was judged by the presence of peripheral blood NCE with MN. MN represent acentric chromosome fragments and individual whole chromosomes lost during mitosis. No essential changes were observed in the experimental group as compared to the control group (Table 2). On the contrary, on the 365th day of the experiment even a reduction of the percentage of NCE with MN was observed. This is probably due to the activation of the antioxidant defence mechanisms, but we have no sufficient data as yet to make a final conclusion.

The results of estimation of ASH frequency depending on the duration of irradiation are presented in Table 3. The ASH frequency in the experimental groups increased as compared to the control with the time of irradiation. At a dose of 35.7 cGy the ASH frequency significantly exceeded the control level.

A slight reduction of the testis mass as compared to the control was also observed at the same time period (210 days). Low-intensity chronic irradiation was found to activate the hypophysial-adrenal system [3]. The author believes that irradiation indirectly acts as a peculiar stress factor through the neurohumoral system inducing a chain of metabolic changes at the cell and organism levels, which is what leads to an increase in the ASH frequency.

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4. Conclusions

Thus, the results presented in this work demonstrate that a continuous action of low dose-rate gamma-radiation induces an increase in the SSB level in spleen lymphocytes of mice and simultaneously leads to an activation of the antioxidant defence systems of these cells. This effect can be due to the development of adaptation processes with the accumulation of a certain dose. At the same time, the results of estimation of the ASH frequency cause some anxiety and necessitate studies of the influence of continuous low dose-rate irradiation on the succeeding generations of animals.

5. Acknowledgements

The work has been carried out with a partial financial support by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project ʋ 99-04-49-218).

6. References

1.L.V. Slozhenikina, L.A. Fialkovskaya, I.K. Kolomiytseva Ornithine decardoxylase in organs of rats following gamma-irradiation at low dose-rate. Intern. Journ. Radiat. Biol. 1999. V. 75. P.195-199.

2.M.A. Smotryaeva, K.E. Kruglyakova, L.N. Shishkina et al. The structural and biochemical properties of mice blood components after low dose gamma-irradiation of different intensity. Radiats Biol Radioecol 1996. V. 36. P. 21-29 (in Russian).

3.M.Yu. Alesina Radiobiological effects formation in experimental animals under low dose chronic internal and external irradiation. Intern. Journ. Radiat. Medicine. 1999. V. 2. P.92-99.

4.A.N. Osipov, M.V. Grigoryev, V.D. Sypin et al. The Influence of Chronic Exposure to Cadmium and

ϑ-Radiation at Low Doses on Genetic Structures of Mice. Radiats. Biol. Radioecol. 2000. Vol. 40(4). P. 373-377 (in Russian).

5.A.N. Osipov, V.D. Sypin, P.V. Puchkov et al. Changes in the Level of DNA-Protein Cross-Links in Spleen Lymphocytes of Mice Exposed to Low-Intensity ϑ-Radiation at Low Doses. Radiats. Biol. Radioecol. 2000. Vol. 40(5). P. 516-519 (in Russian).

6.N.P. Singh, M.T. McCoy, R.R. Tice, E.L. Schneider A simple technique for quantification of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp. Cell. Res. 1988. V. 175. P. 184–191.

7.A.R. Collins, A.G. Ma, S.J. Duthie The kinetics of repair of oxidative DNA damage (strand breaks and oxidised pyrimidine dimers in human cells). Mutat. Res. 1995. V. 336(1). P. 69–77.

8.H. Kobayashi, C. Sugiyama, Y. Morikawa et al. A comparison between manual microscopic analysis and computerized image analysis in the single cell gel electrophoresis assay. MMS Commun. 1995. V. 3. P. 103–115.

9.Ɋ.Ɇ. Kanter, ɇ.S. Shwartz A fluorescence enhancement assay for cellular DNA damage. Mol. Pharmacol. 1982. V. 22. P.145-151.

10.R. Schlegel, J.T. MacGregor The persistence of micronuclei in peripheral blood erythrocytes: detection of chronic chromosome breakage in mice. Mutat. Res. 1982. V. 104. P. 367-369.

11.A.J. Wyrobec, J.A. Heddle, W.R. Bruce Chromosomal abnormalities and the morphology of male mouse sperm heads. Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 1975. V. 17. P. 675-681.

12.N.P. Singh, R.E. Stephens, E.L. Schneider Modifications of alkaline microgel electrophoresis for sensitive detection of DNA damage. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 1994. V. 66. P. 23–28.

Part 7.

Applied Radioecology and Ecotoxicology

METHODS AND TASKS OF RADIATION MONITORING OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

V. KRASNOV and A. ORLOV

Polesskiy Branch of Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Amelioration (UkrSRIFA), pr. Mira, 38; Zhitomir, 10004, UKRAINE,

[e-mail]

1. Introduction

More than 15 years have passed since the Chernobyl accident changing sharply the radiation situation of an environment over a large territory. This accident also has changed way of life and consciousness of the people which were influenced by it and those who participated in liquidation of its consequences and studied biological and ecological effects of this global catastrophe. Unfortunately, now world science can’t predict the remote consequences on many aspects, in particular, influence of low-dose radiation, consequences of these doses to whole biota and its separate species including medical consequences on health of man in radioactively contaminated zone. Besides last ones also another important problem has appeared i.e. the synergetic influence of pollutants of anthropogenic origin (technogenic radionuclides, heavy metals, pesticides, etc.). For this reason now when the sharpness of Chernobyl problem is essentially deadened the significance of such research increases.

Forest ecosystems are critical landscapes from the point of view of radionuclides migration in trophic chains, from its components to the man. At the same time, high values of content of radioactive elements which were accumulated in it has caused changing of methods of management of forestry as a part of industry on large territories as well as the reorganization of this industry taking into account the radiation situation. Rather extensive researches were carried out in forest ecosystems mainly after Chernobyl accident. There were studied:

ξ The scales, character and peculiarities of radioactive contamination of forest ecosystems of various types;

ξ The methodological problems of examination of forests on radioactive contamination (partially studied, with some contradictory conclusions);

ξ The general regularities of redistribution of radionuclides in various types of soils automorphic and hydromorphic landscapes;

ξ The influence of some species of mosses and lichens on rates of migration of radioactive elements in soil;

ξ The paths and directions of accumulation of radionuclides were determined and the quantitative evaluation of the main woodforming tree species were given;

ξ The evaluation of the contribution of tree canopy in radionuclides redistribution in different species composition and cenotic structure forests on the basis of foresttypological approach has been given;

ξ The regularities of migration of radioactive elements in various grass and dwarfshrub species of undergrowth vegetation in various types of habitat;

ξ The resource evaluation of the main wild mushroom, berry and medicinal plants of forests was given from the point of view of their radioactive contamination and dose formation on local population;

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ξ	The role of undergrowth vegetation in various types of habitats in redistribution of
	radionuclides in forest ecosystems;
ξ	The specific peculiarities of accumulation of radionuclides by various species of
	edible mushrooms on forest-typological approach;
ξ	The role of spring ephemeroid plants in redistribution of some radioactive isotopes
	in the chain “upper soil layers – plants”;
ξ	The regularities in migration of radionuclides in a system "soil - fodder plants -
	wild game animals" for the main ruminant game species (roe-deer, moose, wild
	boar);
ξ	The regularities of migration of radioactive elements in ecosystems of
	ombrotrophic and mezotrophic bogs;
ξ	The prognosis of radioactive contamination of various components of forest
	ecosystems on the basis of mathematical modelling.

The studying of regularities of radionuclides behaviour in forest ecosystems is a very complex and continuous research process. The main reasons of this phenomenon are differences in climatic conditions, soils and forest vegetation. Forest ecosystems are the complex of biota consisting of numerical species of plants and animals essentially differ by a singularity and specificity in different ecological conditions. The complexity of radioecological researches also is caused by existing of large spatial irregularity of radioactive contamination of forests – by complex configuration of radioactive contamination of territory as a whole. It demands precise methodological guidance of research activity.

As a whole conducted researches have allowed us to understand and to evaluate general regularities of radionuclides migration in forest ecosystems. Besides they have enabled to make up some organizational and economic measures directed on maintenance of safe working conditions of the workers of forestry and also of manufacturing of forest production which radioactive contamination would not exceed state permissible levels [1]. The conducted examination of forests of Ukraine on radioactive contamination (1986-1992) has allowed to show that on 38,6 % of investigated squares of forests in 18 regions of Ukraine density of 137Cs ground deposition exceeded 1,0 Ci·km-2. The highest index was in Zhitomir region (60,1 % of its total forest area), Rivne region (56,3 %), Kiev region (without 30-km exclusion zone of Chernobyl NPP) – 52,2 % of its total forest area. The generalized data of radioactive contamination of forests situated in Ukraine far from 30-km exclusion zone clearly have shown that there are areas of forests with the high levels of radiocontamination including those where forestry as a whole should be forbidden (in Ukraine – on 40,8 thousand ha), the partially limitation of use of wood production of forestry is demanded on 101,5 thousand ha and nonwood production – on 1190,5 thousand ha in Ukraine.

2. Proposed methodology

From a scientific point of view previous study of radiation situation in the forest ecosystems of Ukraine in a certain degree corresponds with purposes and tasks of radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems. However to evaluate them from the point of view that the radiation monitoring of forests should be the constituent of a state system of radiation monitoring of an environment as a whole (law of Ukraine "About a legal mode of territory that has undergone to radioactive contamination as a consequence of Chernobyl catastrophe"), and also general system of state monitoring of an environment (law of Ukraine "About protection of natural environment"), it will be necessary to recognize that unfortunately integral state

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system of forest monitoring in Ukraine does not exist now. Separate monitoring researches are carried out only fragmentary. Moreover the purposes and tasks of monitoring of forest ecosystems are insufficiently precisely defined, the volumes of researches are not defined enough completely, the methodological fundamentals are not supplied, the instrumental base is various but not uniform in different organizations, there is no coordination and also the main organization as well as the constant monitoring participants.

We consider that radioecological monitoring of forest ecosystem is the organized system of observation, control and evaluation of radionuclides migration and circulation in forests.

The system of observations, in turn, should provide spatial distribution of points of observations. Last should be placed in such way that more or less completely to describe the main radiation parameters on territory of Ukraine as a whole, all its climatic zones. It is desirable that the points of observations were located also in such a way that it would be possible to evaluate a radioecological situation determining by pollution from already existing nuclear power plant and also from the global radioactive deposition of technogenic radionuclides at any time. Taking into account essential differences of characteristics and distribution of forest ecosystems in various climatic zones of Ukraine quantity of points of observations and also their location should be different. Because radiation situation at any time and in any place is rather dynamical therefore it is necessary to take into account the main spatial, temporal and succession forest changes [2].

In our mind there is a sense in the differentiated approach to determination of volumes of monitoring researches in various regions of the country. We define the volume of monitoring as quantity of investigated parameters and quantity of points of observations, number of objects of researches as well as periodicity of observations.

Thus the organization of a system of state radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems should be made from units of regional monitoring which should take into account character of existing and possible radioactive contamination as well as peculiarities of forest location, their species composition and cenotic structure.

The main goal of radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems is information support of the state in realization of policy of maintenance of safe living conditions and protection of nature from radioactive contamination on the basis of knowledge of regularities of radionuclides migration in various forest types, detection of contemporary parameters, prediction of its volumes and possible origin of phenomena and processes caused by ionizing radiation.

So the object of such monitoring should be forest ecosystem as the complex natural phenomenon consisting of combination of arboreal species, shrubs, grass, dwarfshrubs, mosses, lichens, mushrooms, various animals and microorganisms interact with each other and with environment. Thus it is possible to consider forest ecosystem as a whole on volumes of the activity of radioactive elements retained in it; on scales of its influence on radionuclides migration in forestless territories; on the values of secondary contamination of nearest areas from wood fires; on additional irradiation of the population from consumption of forest food products (wild mushrooms, berries, game). At the same time forest ecosystems are very complex and diverse therefore at certain levels of researches the objects of monitoring can serve their separate components:

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ξ	Various types of soils in different climatic zones of Ukraine at a regional level;
ξ	Tree canopy as a basic component of forest ecosystems;
ξ	Plant species of undergrowth: grasses and dwarf-shrubs, mosses, lichens and
also mushrooms;
ξ	Soil small animals (mainly – mezofauna) and microorganisms;
ξ	Species of wild game.

The objects of monitoring should be selected regionally depending on problems existing on certain territory [3]. Above we have analysed in more detail objects of researches in a zone of influence of Chernobyl NPP. But around normally functioning nuclear power plant radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems should be carried out in considerably smaller volumes, mainly on some their critical components (in most common cases – species-radionuclide accumulators). Such components can serve as possible test-objects of radioecological forest monitoring:

-Needles and leaves of tree species;

-Mosses, lichens and mushrooms;

-Forest litter and upper mineral horizons of soils.

Their selection should conducted from the point of view that the main problems of radioecological monitoring in these conditions are:

ξ	The control of a radiation situation during normal functioning of nuclear power
plant;
ξ	The control of levels of possible radioactive contamination during accidental
and postaccidental situation on nuclear power plant;
ξ	The control of accumulation of radionuclides in critical components of forest

ecosystems during all period of work of nuclear power plant.

As a whole all these problems are aimed at maintenance of safe living conditions of the local population including forestry workers, on acceptance of fast and correct decisions on evacuation of the local population in the case of hard nuclear accident.

Closely with the choosing of objects of radioecological monitoring and its tasks concerns the main criteria and parameters on which mentioned above monitoring is carried out. On territories, which are not located near the zone of influence of Chernobyl NPP, it is correct to observe less quantity of experimental plots and measured parameters in comparison with much more contaminated territories. Such parameters should be investigated in relative clean territories as:

ξ	Values of an exposure doze of gamma-radiation in air and on a surface of soil;
ξ	Surface beta-contamination of soil;
ξ	Specific activity of the main technogenic radionuclides (including those of

reactor origin or atomic bomb tests) in selected critical test-objects of monitoring.

Their quantity should be considerably increased in a zone of influence of Chernobyl NPP, both at the expense of number of measured parameters and at the expense of

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observed experimental plots. It is expediently to study some components of forest ecosystems with periodicity proposed for the last ones:

ξ	Vertical distribution of the main technogenic radionuclides in soil – once per
two years;
ξ	Measurement of specific activity of these radionuclides in parts and organs of

tree species (needles, annual shoots, trunk wood, internal and external parts of bark, roots) – once per 3 years;

ξ Study of specific activity of radionuclides in aboveground and underground parts of undergrowth vegetation, in particular, in grass and dwarf-shruds; mosses, lichens and fruitbodies of macromycetes - once per 2 years.

ξ	Measurement of an exposure doze of gamma-radiation on soil surface – daily;
ξ	Research of migration of radionuclides in a system "soil – fodder plants – wild
game animals" – once per 2 years;
ξ	Calculation of distribution of sum activity of the main radionuclides in forest

ecosystems and values of circulation of radioactive elements in last ones – once per 3 years.

ξ

Thus, the radiation monitoring of forest ecosystem should solve not only mentioned above problems but also:

ξ	Evaluation of distribution of radionuclides in components of forest ecosystems
as a kinds of production of forestry;
ξ	Study of temporal (including multiyear) circulation of radioactive elements in
forest ecosystems;
ξ	Detection of the factors of an anthropogenic and natural origin influencing on

migration of radionuclides.

The radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems as the constituent of general forest monitoring can be divided at several levels. We already marked systems of state and regional monitoring levels. It is necessary also to mark necessity of realization of local monitoring. It can be conducted on certain relatively small territory or in separate forestry unit. In each case the purpose, tasks and test-objects of monitoring should be defined individually. Nevertheless in any case the general requirements for the higher monitoring levels should be executed to the local monitoring:

ξ	The methodological and instrumental basis for realization of monitoring
observations should be unified;
ξ	Successiveness and continuity of realization of observations;
ξ	The stability of criteria, test-objects and investigated parameters from the very
beginning of monitoring (the last can’t be chosen but can be added);
ξ	Comparability of obtained data;
ξ	Unification of the main computer databases and programs of accumulation and

processing of obtained monitoring results and their compatibility with another special wide spread computer programs;

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ξ Capability of application of GIS-technologies in all stages of monitoring, from data collection to its further processing and preparation of digital or graphic information.

3. Conclusion

The radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems as the constituent of general forest monitoring and state monitoring of an environment as a whole, is at the same time a constituent of a system of information support of forestry as a branch of industry. For achievement of goals of radioecological monitoring it is necessary to involve various structural subdivisions both of State Committee of Forestry of Ukraine, the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources and also State Committee of Nuclear Safety of Ukraine. Probably for its implementation it would be expedient to use a network of points of observation of Committee of Hydrometeorology of the country. In forestry as a branch of general industry partially specially prepared experts of local forestry units and two central forest-accounting expeditions can solve problems of radiation monitoring. From our point of view by development of the programs and methodology of observations, collecting and processing of obtained analytical data, creation of analytical materials and prognosis of development of a situation in forests should conduct special subdivisions of Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Amelioration (UkrSRIFA) or special State Centre of Forest Monitoring.

It is necessary to mark that for acceptance of quick decisions on management of forestry in conditions of radioactive contamination the application of GIS-technology is demanded on the basis of radiation monitoring of forest ecosystems. GIS-technology in application to purpose and main tasks of monitoring provides:

ξ	Processing spatial and temporal monitoring data;
ξ	The collection, updating and processing of analytical information;
ξ	Connection digital information with a graphic data presentation;
ξ	Modelling, prediction and evaluation of obtained results and support of

administrative decisions on state level and demanded lower levels inside industry of forestry.

4. References

1.V. Derevets, Yu. Ivanov, V. Marchenko. Radiation-ecological monitoring of exclusion zone. in: Bulletin of ecological state of exclusion zone, 2, 1996. pp. 5-12 (in Ukrainian).

2.V. Krasnov. Radioecology of forests of Polissya of Ukraine. Zhitomir, Volyn publish., 1998. 112 pp. (in Ukrainian).

3.V. Zhuravel et al. Conception of foundation of agrarian-ecological informational subsystem for accompaniment of works on liquidation of consequences of Chernobyl NPP in Russia. in: Reports of 3- rd Conf on Chernobyl problem, vol. 1, part 1, Pripyat, 1992. pp. 78-87 (in Russian).

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOR OF 137Cs, 40K AND 7Be IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS

C. PAPASTEFANOU, M. MANOLOPOULOU, S. STOULOS, A.

IOANNIDOU and E. GERASOPOULOS

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Laboratory, Thessaloniki 54124,

GREECE

1. Abstract

Fallout-derived 137Cs and naturally occurring radionuclides, such as 40K and 40Be in soils and grass were measured in Thessaloniki area, Northern Greece, at temperate zone (40º), in order to examine their behaviour in natural ecosystems. For long-term measurements over a 15-y period, 137Cs concentrations ranged from 3.73 to 1307 Bq kg-1 (avg. 210.5 Bq kg-1) in soils and from 0.4 to 334.9 Bq kg -1(avg. 14.5 Bq kg-1) for grass. Potassium-40 concentrations ranged from 141.4 to 580.2 Bq kg-1 (avg. 224.4 Bq kg-1) in soils and from 66.3 to 1480 Bq kg-1 (avg. 399.8 Bq kg-1) for grass. Beryllium-7 concentrations ranged from 0.53 to 39.6 Bq kg-1 (avg. 14.4 Bq kg-1) in the soils and from 2.1 to 348.0 Bq kg-1 (avg. 54.4 Bq kg-1) for grass. Cesium-137 transfer coefficients, TF from soil to plants (grass) ranged from 0.002 to 7.42 (avg. 0.20). Potassium-40 TF values from soil to plants (grass) ranged from 0.16 to 2.42 (avg. 0.73). Beryllium-7 TF values from soil to plants (grass) ranged from 0.027 to 2.37 (avg. 0.42) 137 An ecological half-life, Tec for 137Cs in grassland 3 1/3 y could be derived, when TF values varied between 0.1 and 0.01 in an 11-y elapsed time since contamination (May 1986). An almost similar Tec value (3 2/3 y) was derived for 40K in grassland.

2. Introduction

It is known that radionuclides that occur naturally in soil are incorporated metabolically into plants. Man-made produced radionuclides introduced into soil behave in a similar manner. In addition to root uptake, direct deposition may occur on foliar surfaces, and when this happens the plants may absorb the radionuclides metabolically.

Uptake of the long-lived radionuclides by plants depends to a considerable degree on whether they remain within reach of the roots of plants and the extent to which they are chemically available. The rates at which the various radionuclides will migrate through different soils under varying conditions of pH and moisture are not well

known.

Of the naturally occurring primordial radionuclides 40K (T1/2=1.28x10 9 y) is very abundant in soil as the stable K = 2.59% of earth's crust [1]. Its concentration in soils ranged between 140 and 850 Bq kg -1(avg. 400 Bq kg -1) [2]. Of the cosmogenic origin 7Be (T1/2 = 53.3 d), a relatively short-lived radionuclide is always present in the atmosphere. Its environmental concentration in the temperate zone is about 3 mBq.m -3 in surface air and 700 Bq.m -3 in rainwater [3]. It is deposited onto the ground through dry and wet deposition processes and is easily found in soil and plants [4]. The Chernobyl origin 137Cs (T =30.17 y) is also

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