From the standpoint of

Peculiar to

Make your own sentences with two of the expressions.

6. Match the synonyms.

1. response	a. eliminate
2. defence	b. contaminate
3. show	c. route
4. remove	d. indicate
5. occur	e. reaction
6. portal	f. resistance
7. pollute	g. take place

7. Fill in the necessary prepositions.

1.Toxicology is a specialized area of risk assessment identifying the level of hazard peculiar ... a definite chemical exposure.

2.Regardless … its effect behavior of xenobiotic can be described in four terms: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.

3.Tissue level depends … transport of the xenobiotic to the target organ and the degree of its sequestration into the tissue.

4.… the standpoint of biology the mechanism of handling the chemicals by the body developed …response … selection pressure.

5.Substances that are not normally present in the body and introduced from outside are referred … as xenobiotics … convenience.

6.Scientific principles of toxicology are applied … medical geology.

7.Elimination is a term used for removal of xenobiotic … the organism.

8.Risk assessment is the identification and characterization of the level of risk resulting … exposure of hazards including the uncertainties.

8. Match the words with their definitions.

1) xenobiotic		a) the process of removal of
		xenobiotic from the organism
2) absorption	is	b) a substance involved in
		metabolism, being either synthesized
		during metabolism or taken in from
		the environment

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3) excretion		c) a science dealing with biological
		mechanisms of toxicity and host
		defences against toxicity
4) toxicology		d) the process for xenobiotic to enter
		the body
5) metabolite		e) a substance alien to an organism

9. State whether each of the following sentences are true or false, if false, explain why.

1.Toxicology has started to develop as an independent science from the moment of virus and microbe discovery.

2.Xenobiotics may be an anthropogenic environmental chemical action.

3.Principles of toxicology are applied to many branches of other sciences.

4.There are three mechanisms by which the body handles the chemicals.

5.Absorption is a terms that indicates the overall accumulation of xenobiotic in a body.

6.The most common opportunity for exposure is contaminated hands.

7.After the circulation in blood the xenobiotic is mixed in it no matter how it has entered the organism.

8.Transformations of xenobiotic in organism may activate the action of xenobiotic by converting the native agent into a metabolite.

10. Read the text again and make notes under the following headings. Find some additional information on each of the topics. Talk about the process of toxicokinetics. Use the scheme.

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–The role of toxicology, its interaction with other sciences.

–The stages of handling the chemicals by the body.

–The process of xenobiotic absorption in organism.

–The process of xenobiotic distribution in organism.

–Metabolism of xenobiotic.

–Excretion of xenobiotic from organism.

11. Read the text and answer the questions.

Toxic heavy metals

The major heavy metals (metals with relatively high atomic weight) that pose health hazards to people and ecosystems include mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel, gold, platinum, silver, bismuth, arsenic, selenium, vanadium, chromium, and thallium. Each of these elements may be found in soil and water that has not been contaminated by people. However, each of these metals has uses in the modern industrial society, and each is also a byproduct of the mining, refining, and use of other elements. Heavy metals often have direct physiological toxic effect. Some are stored or incorporated in living tissue, sometimes permanently. Heavy metals tend to accumulate over time in fatty body tissue. As a result, a little arsenic each day may eventually result in a fatal dose (the plot of more than one murder mystery).

Mercury, thallium, and lead are very toxic to people. They have long been mined and used, and their toxic properties are well known. Mercury, for example, is the “Mad Hatter” element. At one time, it was used in making felt hats stiff, and because mercury damages the brain, hatters were known to act peculiarly in Victorian England. Thus, the Mad Hatter in Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland had real antecedents in history.

Chemical elements released from rocks or human processes can become concentrated in humans through many pathways. These pathways may involve what is known as biomagnification – the accumulation or increase in the concentration of a substance in living tissue as it moves through a food web (also known as bioaccumulation). For example, cadmium, which influences the risk of heart disease, may enter the environment via ash from burning coal. The cadmium in coal exists in very low concentrations. After coal is burned in a power plant, the ash is collected in a solid form and disposed in a landfill (свалка). The landfill is covered with soil and revegetated. The low concentration of cadmium in the ash and soil is taken

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into the plants as they grow. But the concentration of cadmium in the plants is three to five times greater than the concentration in the ash. As cadmium moves through the food chain, it becomes more and more concentrated. By the time it is incorporated in the tissue of people and other carnivores, the concentration is approximately 50-60 times the original concentration in coal.

Mercury in aquatic ecosystems offers another example of biomagnification. Mercury is a potentially serious pollutant of aquatic ecosystem, such as ponds, lakes, rivers, and the ocean. Natural sources of mercury in the environment include volcanic eruption and the erosion of natural mercury deposits. However, we are most concerned with human input of mercury into the environment through burning coal in power plants, incinerating (сжигать) wastes, and processing metals, such as gold. Although we are unable to measure it precisely, it is estimated that human activities have doubled or tripled the amount of mercury in the atmosphere, and that it is increasing at about 1.5 % per year.

A major source of mercury in many aquatic ecosystems is precipitation from the atmosphere – rain and snow. Most of what is deposited is inorganic mercury, but once this mercury is in surface water, a process known as methylation may occur. Methylation changes inorganic mercury into methyl mercury through bacterial activity. Methyl mercury is much more toxic than organic mercury, and it is eliminated more slowly from animals’ system.

As the methyl mercury works its way through food chain, biomagnification occurs, so that higher concentrations of methyl mercury are found farther up the food chain. Thus, big fish that eat little fish contain higher concentration of mercury than do smaller fish and the aquatic insects that the fish feed on. Large fish, such as tuna and swordfish, have elevated mercury concentrations, which is why today we are advised to limit our consumption of these fish. Indeed, pregnant women are advised not to eat them at all.

(From E.A. Keller, D.B. Botkin. Essential Environmental Science. John Wieley & Sons, Inc., 2007)

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1. What is biomagnification? Describe its process looking at the picture.

2.Give the examples of biomagnification of some elements.

3.What are the main sources of contamination with heavy metals in the environment?

4.Find more information on the impact on human organism.

mercury;

cadmium;

thallium;

lead;

arsenic;

selenium;

vanadium; chromium

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12. Work in pairs. Write 6 questions on the text above.

Act your dialogue using the expressions of agreement and disagreement.

13.  a) Name the main principles of toxicokinetics. Characterise each of them.

b) You will hear the description of the process taking place at each stage of toxicokinetics. Decide which description corresponds to what principle.

a)Absorption

b)Distribution

c)Metabolism

d)Excretion

1

2

3

4

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14. a) Name the organs involved in each stage of toxicokinetics. Example: Absorption may occur through …

b) Describe the processes of toxicokinetics using the picture.

	WORDLIST
Biomagnification		бионакопление, биоаккумуляция
Bolus		пищевая масса, кусок пищи
By-product		побочный продукт
Eliminate		устранять
Excretion		выведение, экскреция
Exposure		подвергание воздействию,
	739

	экспозиция
Food web	пищевая сеть
Framework	структура, точка отсчета
Hazard	опасность, риск
Host	организм-хозяин, реципиент
Host defences	иммунная защита организма
Infusion	вливание, введение
Ingestion	прием пищи, глотание
Input	ввод, вход
Intravenous	внутривенный
Metabolite	метаболит, продукт обмена
	веществ
Pathway	путь, прохождение, траектория
Risk assessment	оценка рисков
Scope	рамки, границы
Sequestration	секвестрация, отторжение
Target organ	орган-мишень
Tissue	ткань
Uptake	поглощение, ввод
Xenobiotic	ксенобиотик, чужеродное
	вещество

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REFERENCES

1.Dara, S.S. (2001). A Textbook of Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Control. Delhi.

2.Lower, S.K. (2004). Survey of Environmental Geobiochemistry. Simon Fraser University.

3.Mascull, B. (1997). Key Words in Science and Technology. The University of Birmingham.

4.Положинцев Б. И. Introduction to ecology. – СПб.: Химера, 1999.

5.Evans, V., Dooley, J. (1998). Enterprise 4. Express publishing.

6.Keller, E.A., Botkin, D.B. (2007). Essential Environmental Science. John Wieley & Sons, Inc.

7.Essentials of Medical Geology. (2005). Elsevier Inc.

8.Rye, D., Greenall, S. (2004). CAE: Listening and Speaking Skills.

9.Fowler, W.S. (2003). New Fowler proficiency. Listening and speaking.

10.Johnson, C.M. and D. (1998). General Engineering. Prentice Hall, Europe.

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