Development of the Self-Concept

Ex.1. Learn the following words and word combinations:

1. to compare – сравнивать, comparison – сравнение;

2. to depend on – зависеть (от)

3. gap – промежуток, разница, разрыв;

4. to interact – взаимодействовать ( with ); interaction – взаимодействие; взаимосвязь;

5. perception – восприятие;

6. to permit – позволять, разрешать;

7. point of view – точка зрения;

8. to refer to – относить, приписывать; относиться; касаться;

9. trait – характерная черта, особенность;

Ex.2. Read the following text.

Self or self-concept is referred to as an individual’s self-awareness. According to Murphy, “the self is the individual as known to the individual” or as Burns defines it as “the set of attitudes a person holds towards himself.” The human capacity for self-awareness permits us to try to see ourselves as others see us. The self-concept normally refers to three main components: self-image, self-esteem and ideal self.

Self-image refers to the way we describe ourselves, what we think we are like. One way of investigating self-image is to ask people a question “Who are you?” 20 times. This typically produces two categories of answers – social roles (son, wife, student and so on) and personality traits. Personality traits are what we think we are like and our opinion about ourselves may be different from how others see us. But how others behave towards us has an important influence on our self-perception.

While the self-image is essentially descriptive, self-esteem is essentially evaluative. It refers to how much we like and approve ourselves, how worthy a person we think we are. Our self-image depends on how we evaluate our self-esteem that is how much we like the kind of person we think we are. The value of ourselves also depends on culture, age, gender, social background and so on.

Self-esteem is also determined by how much the self-image differs from the ideal self. We may want to be different in some aspects, or we may want to be a totally different person. Generally, the greater the gap between our self-image and our ideal self, the lower our self-esteem.

The most famous theory of self-concept is symbolic interaсtionism (by Mead). It holds that human beings interact with things in terms of their meanings. The interaction refers specifically to the fact that people communicate with each other, what provides the opportunity for meanings to be learned. Because we share a common language and have the ability for symbolic thought, we can look at the world from the point of view of other people; that is, take the role of the others. According to Mead this is essential process by which the self-concept develops. So the key process by which we develop a concept of self is role-taking. By placing ourselves in the position of others, we can look back on ourselves. The development of self-concept is influenced by:

• the reaction of others;

• comparison with others;

• social roles;

• identification.

1. worthy – достойный; заслуживающий;подходящий;

Ex.3. Practice to pronounce the following words.

To aware, awareness, attitude, to evaluate, evaluative, to describe, descriptive, esteem, image, ideal, concept, generally, essentially, specifically, symbol, symbolic, to interact, interaction, interactionism.

Ex. 4. Read and translate the words and word combinations.

Self-awareness, self-concept, self-perception, the set of attitudes, self-image, self-esteem, ideal self, social roles, personality traits, interaction, symbolic interactionism, symbolic thought, meaning, key process, role-taking, identification, comparison, a common language.

Ex. 5. Find English equivalents in the text:

Культура, социальное происхождение, быть другим человеком, общий язык, общаться, способность человека, основные компоненты, оценка самих себя, мнение о самом себе, друг с другом, давать возможность, социальные роли, принимать роль другого, развитие самопознания.

Ex.6. Give the corresponding nouns to the following verbs:

to mean, to produce, to compare, to perceive, to permit, to interact, to attach, to support, to intervene, to provide, to participate, to think, to identify.

Ex.7. Translate the words in the brackets into English:

1. An individual has a capacity for (самопознание).

2. The theory of symbolic interaсtionism considers (речь) an important factor of (формирование самопознания).

3. A child acquires (социальные роли) through the play.

4. (Самопознание) is not a static structure but a constantly (изменяющийся процесс).

5. We constantly (взаимодействовать) with each other.

6. The adults often (сравнивать) their own children with other children.

Ex. 8. Answer the questions on the text:

1. What capacity does a human being possess which differs him from non-humans?

2. What is the self according to some psychologists? How do you understand the self?

3. How can we investigate self-image?

4. What is self-esteem? What does it depend on?

5. What is the most popular theory of self-concept?

6. How do people develop their selves?

7. Why is it possible to interact with each other?

8. What influences the development of our self-concept?

Ex.9. Give 20 different answers to the question: “Who are you?”

1. I am …

2. I am …

…

20. I am …

Ex.10. Retell the text above.

UNIT 6

Text 1.

The Theories of Personality (part I)

Ex.1. Learn the following words:

1. to adopt – принимать;

2. to advance – вносить, выдвигать;

3. approach – подход;

4. common – общий, всеобщий;

5. dimension – измерение;

6. to emphasize – придавать особое значение; подчеркивать; акцентировать;

7. to propose – предлагать; вносить предложение;

8. questionnaire – вопросник, анкета, опросный лист;

9. unconscious – бессознательный.

Ex.2. Read the following text:

There are many different theories concerning the nature and development of personality and the causes of personality changes. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates believed that people behave differently because they have a predominance of one type of bodily fluid, or humor. According to this theory, people with calm or passive personalities have one dominant humor, while impulsive and temperamental people have a different dominant humor. In the 20th century, other classification schemes were advanced. The German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer thought that personality was determined by the person's body type—such as plump, lean, or athletic. He suggested that short persons were more likely to be social, friendly, and lively. Both of these theories remain unproven.

Modern personality theory began with the work of Sigmund Freud, who developed psychoanalysis. As a personality theory, psychoanalysis emphasizes the unconscious processes that influence behavior. According to Freud, personality is the result of the expression and satisfaction of psychological impulses in childhood. Freud proposed that an individual's personality is established in the first few years of life at critical periods of psychological development. He described three structures of personality: the id, unconscious instincts; the ego, the conscious self or intellect; and the superego, the conditional reflexes of social rules and internalized values.

Modern personality theorists differ when they are trying to compare individuals in terms of a specified number of traits or dimensions common to everyone (the nomothetic approach), or trying to identify individuals’ unique characteristics and qualities (the idiographic approach).

Psychologists who believe that personality consists of personality traits and who are interested in personality in general, belong to the psychometric approach. The major figures are Eysenck and Cattell. They use personality questionnaires and the results from these are analyzed using factor analysis. They try to find factors in terms of which everyone can be compared. They adopt the nomothetic approach.

Psychologists who believe in that every individual is unique adopt the idiographic approach. They may or may not see personality as permanent, but they are concerned with the whole person. Idiographic theorists are Allport, Kelly, Maslow and Rogers. For example, humanistic psychologists are interested in characteristics which make us clearly human, including our experience of ourselves as people.

The psychodynamic theories of Freud and Jung are clearly idiographic: they are based on studies of patients under psychotherapy treatment and are not dealt with measuring personality. However, they are also concerned with the nature of personality and take into account individual differences. For example, Jung was the first who distinguished between introverts and extroverts, which Eysenck later measured in his personality questionnaires.

1. humor – телесная жидкость

2. plump – полный; округлый, пухлый

3. lean – тощий, худощавый

Ex.3. Practice to pronounce the following words.

Dominance, predominance, dominant, impulsive, scheme, nomothetic, idiographic, unique, characteristics, to measure, psychoanalysis, satisfaction, structure, to internalize, internalization.

Ex.4. Form the nouns according to the example. Translate them.

To teel – feeling

To learn, to understand, to love, to like, to hear, to smoke, to read, to swim, to write.

Ex. 5. Translate the words and word-combinations using the dictionary.

The development of personality, to remain unproven, body type, to behave differently, the nomothetic approach, the psychometric approach, the whole person, the idiographic approach, humanistic theorists, psychodynamic approach, the nature of personality, parental standards.

Ex. 6. Find English equivalents in the text.

Индивидуальные различия, детство, бессознательные процессы, критический период, психологическое развитие, измерение личности, постоянные черты характера, общие черты характера, уникальные черты характера, факторный анализ, специфические аспекты.

Ex.7. Read some of major ego defense mechanisms, using the dictionary, and give the examples of them:

1. Displacement is transferring our feelings from their true target onto a

harmless, substituted target (“kicking the cat”);

2. Sublimation is a form of displacement in which a socially positive

activity is found for expressing some unacceptable

impulse (for example: playing sport to redirect aggressive

instincts);

3. Isolation is separating contradictory thoughts of feelings into “logic-

tight” compartments;

4. Denial is refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality;

5. Regression is reverting to behavior characteristic of an earlier

stage of development;

6. Projection is displacing your own unacceptable feelings onto someone

else;

7. Rationalization is finding an acceptable excuse for real unacceptable

behavior or situation;

8. Repression is forcing a distressing memory or feeling wish out of

consciousness and making it unconscious.

Ex. 8. Continue the sentences:

1. There are many different theories …

2. S. Freud developed …

3. The id is …

4. The ego is …

5. The superego is …

6. The nomothetic approach …

7. The idiographic approach …

8. The psychometric approach …

9. The psychodynamic approach …

10. Jung was the first who …

Ex.9. Translate the second paragraph of the text above in writing.

Ex.10. Retell the text above.

Text 2.

The Theories of Personality (part II)

Ex.1. Learn the following words and word-combinations:

1. to account (for) – вычислять;

2. amount – величина, количество;

3. to assume – допускать, предполагать;

4. consistent – совместимый, согласующийся; consistency – соответствие, взаимодействие;

5. to decrease – уменьшать (ся);

6. framework – структура, строение; система взглядов, рамки;

7. honesty – честность;

8. performance – исполнение, выполнение;действие; поступок;

9. set – совокупность, класс.

Ex.2. Read the following text.

The American psychologist Gordon Allport developed a trait theory of personality. A trait is a tendency to behave in some consistent manner over time and in different situations. In his trait theory, Allport identified traits common to all persons in a given culture. He also identified traits that grow out of personal experience and are unique to individuals. Allport's trait theory greatly influenced subsequent theories of personality, many of which consider personality to be a set of traits. Trait labels are applied when a person's performance seems to be consistent in diverse situations.

Another theory of personality is called situationism. It emphasizes characteristics of the situation in which persons are placed, rather than traits within the person. According to situationism, human behavior is determined by influences in each situation. For example, a person's level of honesty in a situation may be different if the person knows that dishonesty can be revealed, the rewards for dishonesty are high, or other people are behaving honestly or dishonestly. Situationism suggests that people behave in response to changes in the situation. Factors in a given situation, however, influence different people in different ways.

In the theory of personality known as interactionism, the significance of both trait and situational determinants of behavior are recognized. Interactionism takes into account both a person's predisposition to a type of response and the variables of the situation. It says that both factors influence performance.

Eysenck’s and Cattell’s theories are examples of multi-trait theories. Multi-trait theories try to include all aspects of personality and assume that individual differences can be described in the terms of a particular set of traits. Since the 1980s, there has been a vast amount of research to discover a small but comprehensive number of basic trait dimensions which can account for the structure of personality and individual differences.

There is a growing consensus that personality can be described by five broad factors, known as the “big five”. They are Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to experience (or Intellect). While different versions of the “big five” have been proposed, the five-factor model has provided a framework for trait research.

According to some psychologists, the consistency of personality increases from childhood to young adulthood, increases further still until about 30, then stabilizes between 50 and 70, however, some traits are more fluid that others. An international team of researchers studied changes in the “big five” between the age 14 and 30, in samples from Great Britain, Turkey, Spain, Germany and the Czech Republic. Their results were that Neuroticism, Extroversion and Openness to experience (or Intellect) decreased over this period while Agreeableness and Conscientiousness increased.

Ex.3. Practice to pronounce the following words.

Unique, subsequent, situationism, interactionism, honesty, dishonesty, significance, comprehensive, extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness.

Ex. 4. Translate the words and word-combinations.

Theory of personality, a trait theory of personality, situationism, interactionism, multi-trait theory, one-dimensional theory, a vast amount of, comprehensive number, the structure of personality, childhood, adulthood, a growing consensus, the five-factor model, the consistency of personality.

Ex. 5. Give the corresponding nouns to the following verbs.

To develop, to generate, to communicate, to predominate, to describe, to concentrate, to provide, to observe, to suggest, to measure, to combine, to occupy, to condition, to determine.

Ex.6. Answer the questions on the text:

1. What theory did G. Allport develop?

2. What kind of traits did he identify?

3. How does situationism explain human behaviour determination?

4. What does interactionism hold?

5. What are multi-trait theories?

6. What are the main factors of personality according to the growing consensus in psychology? How do they develop through a person’s life?

Ex.7. Read and translate the table of the “big five” personality traits. Add the table with some more traits:

Personality traits	Desirable traits	Undesirable traits
Extroversion	Outgoing, sociable, assertive	Introverted, reserved, passive
Agreeableness	Kind, trusting, warm	Hostile, selfish, cold
Conscientiousness	Organised, tidy, thorough	Careless, unreliable, sloppy
Neuroticism (or Emotional stability)	Calm, even-tempered	Moody, narrow
Openness to experience (Intellect)	Imaginative, intelligent, creative	Shallow, unsophisticated, imperceptive

Ex.8. Choose the proper word. Translate the following text in writing.