- •Министерство образования рф
- •Accidence
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
- •§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
(1) Coordinating conjunctions;
(2) Subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or in dependent sentences (d).
He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn't any more; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)
(b) He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson.)
(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right and that other human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they. (London)
(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Haviland apologized for his mistake. But he was not as impressed as Erik had wanted him to be. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London.)
He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte.)
§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to their meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences. There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.
1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both ... and, not only ...but (also), neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).
There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky the blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Galsworthy)
His whole face was colourless rock; his eye was both spark and flint. (Ch. Bronte)
I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill, nor do I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely... (Wells)
...but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well as receive; and she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)
...the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnight not only in the ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms, but in leading articles and letters. (Shaw)
He went on as a statue would: that is, he neither spoke nor moved. (Ch. Bronte)
Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.
Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement and another.
The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, by way of the Old Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)
... either his furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any witnesses of his Waterloo flight. (Thackeray)
He was compelled to think this thought, or else there would not be any use to strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)
“You go and fetch her down, Tom,” said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply, his perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the lad had been hard upon "the little un", else she would never have left his side... (Eliot)
Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas.
Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted
with or set against another.
Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered with silent triumph and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)
His nerves had become blunted, numb, while his mind was filled with weird visions and delicious dreams. (London)
Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for.
Causative-consecutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.
He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night; so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff. (Dickens)
His eyes must have had in them something of George Forsyte's sardonic look; for her gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face went stony. (Galsworthy)
The conjunction for is a borderline case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it approaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:
There was moreover time to spare, for Fleur was to meet him at the Gallery at four o'clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)
Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.
Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, "I don't know what came over me." "You know as well as I do and that's why we're going away," Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)
The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as well as in compound sentences is widely spread.
But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused, and raised his head. (Cronin)
The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... or are more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.
There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither large nor small. (London)
...in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)
...there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been either amusement or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)
Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:
...there stood a white house within a walled garden, and in the pantry of this we found a store of food. (Wells) (copulative)
You are nineteen, Jon, and I am seventy-two. How are we to understand each other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)
When he read those books something happened to him, and he went out of doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)
The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.
Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest. (Dickens) (adversative)
After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy) (disjunctive)
The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:
He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, for the least thing would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy) (causative)
From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat out of the bag, for he rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy) (consecutive)