- •Министерство образования рф
- •Accidence
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
- •§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
a) after expressions of wish in the principal clause. If the action expressed in the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood. This is formal and has the effect of making a wish more doubtful:
I wish Tessa were here now.
I wish we were all as young as he (Galsworthy)
Жаль, что мы все не так молоды, как он.
I wish it were all over.
Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы все это кончилось.
I wish she felt as I do. (E. Bronte)
Я бы хотела, чтобы она чувствовал то же, что и я.
Не wished he had someone to talk to ... (Wilson)
Он хотел, чтобы у него был кто-нибудь, с кем можно
было бы поговорить.
If the action expressed in the object clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.
Auntie, I wish I had not done it. (Twain)
Тетя, мне очень жаль, что я это сделал.
I wish you hadn’t put yourself to so much trouble.
Жаль, что вы причинили себе столько беспокойства.
The above examples show that such sentences are often translated by means of как жаль, мне жаль.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary would (for all persons) is also used in object clauses after the verb to wish. This form is used only in sentences referring to the present or future; it is possible only if the subject of the principal clause is not the same as the subject of the object clause. It is chiefly used in sentences expressing request or annoyance.
I wish you would stay with me for a while. (Voynich)
Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со мной.
I wish you would not talk like this, papa. (Conrad)
Я бы хотела, чтобы вы не говорили так, папа.
We must use could and not would after I and We:
I wish I could be you.
I wish we could be together.
I wish I could swim.
I wish I could have been with you.
Would expresses willingness; could expresses ability:
I wish he would come tomorrow, (i.e. I don't know if he wants to)
I wish he could come tomorrow, (i.e. I'm sure he can't)
I wish Tessa could have come to my party, (i.e. she wasn't able to)
b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses introduced by the conjunction lest if in the principal clause the predicate is expressed by a verb denoting fear. The mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.
Dr. Brown was afraid lest Margaret should think the house bare and cheerless. (Gaskell)
Не trembled lest his secret should be discovered.
Он дрожал при мысли, что его тайна будет раскрыта.
I dreaded lest any stranger should notice me and speak
to me. (Eliot)
Я боялась, что какой-нибудь незнакомый человек заметит меня и заговорит со мной.
After verbs denoting fear object clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that, in which case the Indicative Mood is used, often with the modal verb may (might).
Pick up your spectacles. I’m afraid that someone may step on them.
She fears (feared) that she will (would) be blamed.
She fears (feared) that she may (might) be blamed.
c) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses after expressions of order, recommendation or suggestion, advice, desire in the principal clause (to order, to suggest, to propose to demand, to desire, to insist, to be anxious, to see to it). The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.
Arnie called him at the lab, suggesting that they should get together and talk things over. (Wilson)
In American English we often find the Present Subjunctive in this case.
... she insisted that they open a bottle of wine and toast his
success. (Stone)
Она настаивала, чтобы они откупорили бутылку вина и выпили за его успех.
§ 14. The Subjunctive Mood is used in attributive appositive clauses modifying the nouns wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.
Orders were given that we should start at nine.
A resolution was passed that all should take part in the work.
His wish that everybody should take part in the work was reasonable.
§ 15. The Subjunctive Mood is also used in attributive clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause: It is time, It is high time. In this case the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
It’s time we got out. (Cusack)
Нам пора выбираться.
Clearly, it’s time someone gave you a bit of advice. (Snow)
Ясное дело, пора кому-нибудь дать тебе совет.
I suppose it’s time I made up my mind. (Snow)
Я полагаю, мне пора принять решение.
Now then, children. It's high time you were washed and
dressed. (Mansfield)
Ну, дети, давно пора умываться и одеваться.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is also possible, though less common.
It is high time that you should be known. (Cronin)
Давно пора, чтобы тебя узнали.
§ 16. Should may have a peculiar function– it may be used for emotional colouring. We call it the emotional should. Here we always find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should+ Indefinite Infinitive (if the actions are simultaneous). If priority is expressed the Perfect Infinitive is used.
In this case the Subjunctive Mood is rendered in Russian by the Indicative Mood.
The emotional should occurs in different kinds of subordinate clauses. We find the emotional should in the following cases:
a) In object clauses after expressions of astonishment, incredulity, regret, joy, surprise:
It is strange I should never have heard him even mention
your name. (Austen)
Странно, что я никогда даже не слышала, чтобы он упоминал ваше имя. .
It is impossible that she should have said it.
He может быть (невозможно), чтобы она это сказала (не могла она это сказать).
He was little surprised that Ann should speak so frankly about it.
I am sorry that you should think so badly of me.
It is absurd that such things should happen to a family like theirs.
In the principal clause we can also find such expression as it is wonderful (natural, singular, terrible, monstrous, odd); it infuriated (outraged, startled, surprised, puzzled) me; it struck me as funny, etc.
b) Sometimes the same attitude may be expressed in the principal clause by a noun with the same meaning: wonder, pity, shame, etc.
He is such a charming man that it is quite a pity he should be so grave and so dull. (Austen)
Он такой чудесный человек; как жаль, что он такой серьезный и скучный.
c) The Subjunctive Mood with the emotional should may also occur:
1. In rhetorical questions beginning with why:
Why should you and I talk about it? (Dickens)
К чему нам с вами говорить об этом?
Why should I do it?
С какой стати я буду делать это?
2. In constructions of the following kind:
The door opened and who should come in but Tom.
Дверь открылась, и кто бы вы думали вошел? Не кто иной
как Том.
That it should come to this! To think that it should come to this!
И до чего дошло дело! Подумать только, до чего дошло дело!
In sentences of this kind the Indicative Mood is also possible.
Oh! It is strange he never mentioned to me that he had a ward.
It is only wonderful we have seen no living creature there before.