§ 6. The category of number.

English countable nouns have two numbers: the singular and the plural. The main types of the plural forms of English nouns are as follows:

1. The general rule for forming the plural of English nouns is by adding the ending -s (-es) to the singular: flowers, beds, doves, bees, boys etc.

2. If the noun ends in -s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, or -tch, the plural is formed by adding -es to the singular:

bus — buses box — boxes bench — benches

glass—glasses brush—brushes match—matches

3. If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, -у is changed into -i before -es.

fly —flies

army — armies

lady — ladies

In proper names, however, adding the ending -s to the singular forms the plural: Mary, Marys.

Note. If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, adding -s to the singular forms the plural.

day — days monkey — monkeys

play—plays toy —toys

key — keys boy — boys

4. If the noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, the plural is generally formed by adding -es. Only a few nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant form the plural in -s.

cargo — cargoes hero — heroes

Potato — potatoes echo — echoes

But: piano -—pianos

solo —solos

photo — photos

All nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form the plural in -s and not in -es.

cuckoo — cuckoos

portfolio — portfolios

There are a few nouns ending in -o which form the plural both in -s and -es:

mosquito — mosquitos or mosquitoes

5. With certain nouns the final voiceless consonants are changed into the corresponding voiced consonants when the noun takes the plural form.

(a) The following nouns ending in -f (in some cases followed by a mute e) change it into v (both in spelling and pronunciation) in the plural:

wife — wives thief — thieves

knife —knives calf—calves

life —lives half —halves

sheaf — sheaves shelf — shelves

leaf — leaves wolf — wolves

self - selves loaf - loaves

There are some nouns ending in - f which have two forms in the plural:

scarf—scarfs or scarves

wharf — wharfs or wharves

Other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s in the plural in the ordinary way:

cliff – cliffs

handkerchief - handkerchiefs

II. The plural forms of some nouns are survivals of earlier formations.

1. There are seven nouns, which form the plural by changing the root vowel:

man — men goose — geese

woman — women mouse — mice

foot —feet louse—-lice

tooth — teeth

2. There are two nouns, which form the plural in -en:

ox — oxen

child—children

Note. The noun brother has, beside its usual plural form brothers, another plural form brethren, which is hardly ever used in colloquial language. It belongs to the elevated style and denotes people of the same creed and not relationship.

The noun cow has, beside its usual plural form cows, has the plural kine, which sometimes occurs in poetry.

2. In some nouns the plural form does not differ from the sin­gular: deer, sheep, swine, trout etc.

III. Some words borrowed from Latin or Greek keep their Latin or Greek plural forms: e.g. phenomenon - phenomena, datum - data, crisis -crises, stimulus -stimuli, formula - formulae, index - indices etc. Some of these nouns have acquired English plural forms: memorandums, formulas, indexes, terminuses, etc.

The tendency to use the foreign plural is still strong in the technical language of science, but in fiction and colloquial English there is an evident inclination to give to certain words the regular English plural forms in -s. Thus in some cases two plural forms are preserved (formulae, formulas, antennae, antennas).

IV. In compound nouns the plural is formed in different ways.

1. As a rule a compound noun forms the plural by adding -s to the headword:

editor-in-chief — editors-in-chief

brother-in-law — brothers-in-law

looker-on — lookers-on

2. In some compound nouns the final element takes the plural form:

lady-bird — lady-birds

3. If there is no noun-stem in the compound, -s is added to the last element:

forget-me-not —forget-me-nots

merry-go-round—merry-go-rounds

4. When compound nouns are spelled as one word the last element is made plural

bookcase - bookcases

armchair – armchairs

5. If the first words of the compound nouns are nouns man or woman a double plural is used

woman-teacher - women-teachers

man-servant - men-servants

V. Some nouns have only the plural form:

1. The names of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales, eye-glasses, tongs, breeches, fetters.

2. Nouns, which have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):

1. Concrete: stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals (провизия), supplies, clothes, sweepings, slops (помои), preserves (консервы), parings (кожура), sweets, belongings.

(b) Collective nouns such as cattle, poultry, police etc are always used as plurals (without s-inflexion).

2. Abstract: holidays, tidings, goings-on (поступки), beginnings (also beginning), earnings, wages, contents, proceeds (выручка), riches (богатство) etc.

3. In some nouns the final -s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the noun is treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupations in -ics:

Mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually considered as singular:

Phonetics is the science of sounds.

Optics is a branch of physics; it treats of light.

These nouns are treated as plurals when practical application is meant:

His phonetics are excellent.

The acoustics of this hall are good.

Politics, tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.

“The only politics I understand,” answered Magnus sternly,” are honest politics.” (Norris)

VI. Some nouns have only the singular form:

1. Names of materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air etc.

2. Collective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen, machinery, furniture, money, youth.

Note: The noun “people” in the meaning of люди is always plural.

In the evening some people came to supper; a writer and

two painters with their wives. (Galsworthy)

The noun “people” in the meaning of народ has both numbers (a people - народ, peoples - народы)

Defending of peace is the cause of all peoples of the world.

The French are a Roman people.

3. Abstract nouns: friendship, joy, patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage, information, progress, news, advice, knowledge etc.

When she goes to make little purchases, there is no news for her. (Thackeray)

The information he gave them was to be read in the lamentations. Sabatini.)

VII. A number of nouns in English may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following cases:

1. The noun “hair” is used in the singular (волосы);

2. The noun “hairs” is used only with the meaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски).

… the girl’s hair was chestnut, almost auburn. (La Mure.)

She has a few gray hairs. She has more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs. (Shakespeare.)

3. Nouns fruit and fish are used in the singular. Plural forms fruits and fishes denote different kinds of fruit and fish

We have much fruit this year.

But: The fruits were local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and other products of summer… (Hardy)

4. The noun penny (пенс) has two plural forms:

pence - if a sum of money is meant; and pennies - when we speak about coins.

It costs eighteen pence.

Pennies are made of bronze.

VIII. Nouns works (завод, заводы) and means (средство, средства) are used both in the singular and in the plural.

A new metallurgical works was built in this town 2 years ago.

There are four works in this town now.