- •Министерство образования рф
- •Accidence
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
- •§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 4. Must.
The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to which have the same meaning can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must. Must is used in present- time contexts with reference to the present and future and in combination with the Perfect Infinitive it refers to the past. In past- time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i. e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must.
And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)
Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.
1. Obligation, necessity, duty (from the speakers point of view).
(a) due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences)
He must write. He must earn money. (London)
I must ask you to excuse me. (Maugham)
Then we must find another way. (Voynich)
The absence of necessity is expressed by need not.
Must I go there to-morrow? Yes, you must. No, you needn't.
(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable.
All experience tended to show that man must die. (Galsworthy)
Bad seed must produce bad corn.
2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
You must leave the room at once!
You mustn’t walk on the grass!
You must come and see us when you are in London.
3. Probability or supposition bordering on assurance.
In this meaning must is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in affirmative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть.
If the action refers to the present the Indefinite Infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the Perfect Infinitive is used.
Surely, they don't want me for myself. Then they must want me for something else. (London)
John must be at the station by now.
Oh, Mae, think how he must be suffering! (Webster)
That must have been a pleasant experience (Voinich)
It must have been raining all night. There are big puddles
in the garden.
In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.
Evidently, she did not know my address.
Supposition referring to the future cannot be expressed by must. The modal word probably or the modal expression to be likely are to be used instead.
She is not likely to come so late.
She will probably come to-morrow.
§ 5. Should and ought.
The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.
There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to-infinitive.
When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite or Continuous Infinitive is used.
In war-time, a man should not part with his rifle. (Heym)
It's murder, and we ought to stop it. (London)
At your age you ought to be earning your living.
You shouldn’t be sitting in the sun.
When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out. In the negative form the combination with the Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled.
He ought to have put everything off.
You should have told me about it yourself.
I am sorry. I oughtn’t to have said it.
Oh, you should have done as you did.
Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.
1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or duty.
In this meaning ought is more often used than should.
You ought to say a word or two about yourself.
He oughtn’t to mention it to anybody
2. Advisability
In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.
You should be more careful. (London)
Вы должны быть более осторожны.
You shouldn’t miss the opportunity.
Вам не следует упускать эту возможность.
3. Something, which can be naturally expected.
The new sanatorium ought to be very comfortable.
The film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors.
Such use of should and ought to does not seem to be very common as this meaning is usually rendered by must.
§6. To be+ Infinitive.
To be + Infinitive is a modal expression.
This modal expression can be used in two tenses—the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).
Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise to-morrow.(Voynich)
They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)
To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as unavoidable. The ways of rendering this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.
1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed. In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.
You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of
this to anyone. (De la Roche)
Ты должна идти прямо в свою комнату. Ты никому не должна ничего говорить об этом.
Norman says I am to leave you alone.
Норман говорит, что я должен оставить тебя в покое.
2. An arrangement or agreement, part of a plan.
In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.
I'm sorry, Major, we had an agreement– I was to do the
questioning here. (Heym)
Простите, майор, мы условились, что допрос буду вести я.
We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a
quarter to eight. (mutual arrangement)
Мы должны были встретиться у входа в театр.
He was to have met me here the next morning." (Voynich)
Он должен был встретить меня здесь на следующее утро.
3. Possibility.
In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.
Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metropole.
Ее отца часто можно было видеть в баре отеля Метрополь.
Where is he to be found?
Где можно его найти?
How are they to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by your costume?
Как могут они знать, что вы– человек со связями, если вы не показываете этого своей манерой одеваться.
4. Something thought of as unavoidable; something that is destined to happen.
He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come.
Ему суждено было быть моим учителем и другом на протяжении многих лет.
I went about brooding over my lot, wondering almost hourly what was to become of me. (Dreiser)
Я все время размышлял о своей судьбе, беспрестанно задавая себе вопрос, что со мною станет.
Note 1. Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same
meaning as the verb to want.
If we are to remain friends you must tell me the truth.
Note 2. It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions «Как мне быть?», «Что мне делать,» are rendered in English by the modal expression What am I to do?
§ 7.To have + Infinitive
The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tenses: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite. It is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms and verbals.
I have to get up at six every day.
I shall have to reconsider my position.
She knew what she had to do.
Having to work alone, he wanted all his time for his research.
The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression are formed with the help of the auxiliary do.
Did you have to walk all the way home?
I didn’t have to walk, I took a tram.
Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.
I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party
for the occasion. (Du Maurier)
I wouldn't look through the letters—disappointment had to be postponed, hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)
To have+ Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.
He is an invalid and has to have a nurse.
Он инвалид и вынужден иметь сиделку.
In colloquial English and especially in American English have got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.
This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.
I’ve got to go.
Have you got to go right now?
You haven’t got to go right now.
There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.
You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a day's work to earn a day's wages, and apples don't grow on monkey-trees. (Lindsay)