Глава 4.Lexico-semantic grouping in mel

Synonymy(S) deals with sameness(одинаковость) of meaning when 1 & the same meaning or alternatively the same meaning is expressed by more than 1 W. Ss are defined as Ws of the same part of speech, conveying(передавать) the same notion or concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

Each synonymic group has a dominant element.The Synonymic dominant(SD) is the most general term,potentially containing(представлять)the specific features,rendered by all other members of the group.{to look-to stare-to glare-to gaze,to leave-to depart-to clear out}.The SD is characterized by the following features:

1)high frequency of usage(слово чрезвычайно употребительное);

2)broad combinability(широкие сочетательн.возм-сти)that is ability to be used in combinations with various classes of W;

3)broad general meaning(обобщенное значение);

4)lack of connotations(значение).

Class-tion of Ss(по Виноградову):

1)ideagraphic Ss are Ws conveying the same notion but diff-nt in shade of meaning.{to tremble-to shiver-to shudder};

2)stylistic Ss are Ws conveying the same notion but diff-nt in stylistic characteristics.{sky-heaven(poetry)};

3)ideagraphic-stylistic Ss when stylistic colouring is accompanied(сопровождается)by a difference in emotional colouring or some other shades of meaning.{head-onion,money-cabbage};

4)contextual Ss are similar only under some specific distributional conditions.{The Ws ‘bear’,’stand’,’suffer’are Ss only when they are used in negative form ‘cant bear’,’cant stand’,otherwise they are semantically different};

5)absolute Ss are Ws coinciding in all of shades of meaning & in all their stylistic characteristics.

A special source of S is euphemisms. Euphemism is the way of speaking by which an unpleasant thing is designated(обозн-ся) by an indirect and milder term.

Antonyms(As) are 2 or more Ws of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings.{light-heavy,a life-death}.There are kinds of As:

1)gradable oppositions(ступенчатые антонимы){hot-warm-cool-cold};

2) complementary As. The denial of one member of the pair applies the assertion of the other member.{mail – femail, dead – alive};

3)conversives.They describe the same notion from the different points of view.{over-under,buy-sell,parent-child}

Hypero-Hyponymic Relations. Hyponymy is a kind of relationship b/n Ws which is based on the relation of inclusion(включение):the meaning of a more specific lexeme(hyponym) is included in that of another,more general lexeme(hyperonym){violet-rose-flower-tulip-daffodil}.

Глава 5. The Latin borrowings of different periods

The role of Latin was very important due to such historic events as the Roman occupation of Britain, the influence of the Roman civilization & the introduction of Christianity. That’s why Latin greatly influenced OE: its alphabet, the growth of writing & literature. Latin words entered the English language at different stages of OE history. Chronologically they can be divided into several layers:

1) The oldest layer words are taken over either directly from the Romans before the Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain (for they certainly had met Romans on the Continent in combat, had gone to Rome as war prisoners & slaves, had enlisted in the Roman troops & had certainly traded with Roman merchants), or from the Celtic inhabitants in Britain.

Early English borrowings from Latin indicate the new things & concepts, which the Teutons had learnt from the Romans; they pertain to (относятся к) war, trade, units of measurement & containers, agriculture, building & home life.

a) mil (mile)

weall (wall) - “стена”.

straet (street) (специально военная дорога). from Latin “via strata”. - “улица”.

b) ceapian (to trade)

ceap (deal)

ceapman (trader) (later “chapman”)

These words were soon assimilated by the language, as they formed many derivatives.

pund (pound) flasce (flask)

ynce (inch) ciest (chest)

c) win (wine) ciese (cheese)

butere (butter) pipor (pepper)

plume (plum)

d) cealc (chalk)

coper (copper) (от Cyprus (Кипр),медь=кипрская бронза)

e) cytel (kettle) (котелок)

cuppe (cup)

pyle (pillow)

Among the Latin loan-words adopted in Britain were some place-names or components of place-names used by the Celts.

2) The second layer consists of words, which directly or indirectly belong to the sphere of religion & church, & words connected with learning. This period of Latin influence began with the introduction of Christianity in the late 6th century & lasted to the end of OE. The total number of Latin loan-words in OE exceeds 500, this layer accounting for over 400 words.

a) The new religion introduced a large number of new conceptions, which required new names:

apostol (apostle) deofol (devil)

antefn (anthem) maesse (mass) (месса)

biscop (bishop) mynster (minster)

candel (candle) munuc (monk)

clerec (=clergyman) (clerk) preost (priest)

To this list we may add many more modern English words from the same source: angel, hymn, idol, martyr, noon, pope, prophet, rule, temple & others.

b) After the introduction of Christianity many monastic (монашеский) schools were set up (созданы, организованы) in Britain. The spread of education led to the wider use of Latin: teaching was conducted in Latin, or consisted of learning Latin.

scol (school) (досуг>школа, занятия) scolere (scholar)

magister (master =учитель)

Also: accent, grammar, meter, notary (нотариус), decline (упадок).

A great number of miscellaneous ([misi’leinjes] – смешанных, разнообразных) borrowings came from Latin probably because they indicated new objects & new ideas, introduced into English life together with their Latin names by those who had a good command of Latin: monks, priests, school-masters. Some of these scholarly words became part of everyday voc-ry. They belong to different semantic spheres:

1. names of trees & plants: elm, lily, pine, pear, mint, fennel (укроп), rose, plant.

2. of illnesses & words pertaining to medical treatment: cancer, fever, plaster.

3. names of animals: camel, elephant, tiger, mule.

4. names of clothes & household duties: cap, mat, sack (мешок), sock, silk.

5. names of foods: beet, oyster, radish.

The Latin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the so-called “translation-loans” – words & phrases created on the pattern of Latin words as their literal translations. The earliest examples of translation-loans are names of the days of the week:

Monan-day (Monday) = day of the Moon Tiwes-day (Tuesday) = day of Tiw (Tiw – Mars) Wednesday = day of Wotan/Odin = Mercury Thursday = day of Thor/Tuner = Jupiter Friday = day of Fria = Venus Saturday = day of Saturn

Sunday = day of Sun