25. Word classes in eng and rus. Polysemy and homonymy.

26. Types of synonyms and antonyms in eng and rus.

27. Euphemisms and taboos in eng and Rus.

28. figurative meanings of words in eng and rus.

29. typology of word fromation16.

Every word in different lang-es has 2 sets of forms. 1) word-changing form buikt with the help of word-changing morphemes

Ex. Дом – дома – домов , town – towns.

2) word-buildings set which is formed with the help of word-building morpheme, which change the meaning of a root morpheme:

Ex. Teach-teacher, дом-домик.

In English a root morpheme usually consists of the stem of a word. But in other flexional lang-es roots don’t coincide with the stem. According to their structure words in 2 lang-es may be divided into the following types:

1. Root (R) when a word consists of a root morpheme only.

2. R+suffix = this type is both productive in both lang-es. The most productive suffixes of nouns denoting the doer of the action are

Ex. Suffix – er, - or, ess, -nik.

In russ suffixes –тель, -щик, -чик are productive.

Less productive S of nouns in Eng –ship, -hood, -dom.

In Rus –у, -ок,…

In Riussian there’s a great number of S with some emotive or expressive charge –чик, еньк, ка, ик,

In Eng the meaning of such S is usually rendered with the help of word combinations.

2 ) the most productive S in Eng – abke, -full, -less

In Rus –ов, -ист, - оват, -ск,

Prefixal type Prefix+Root

Prefixes are more productive in verbs. The most productive in Eng is re- which corresponds in Russian to пере-. In Adjectives the most productive is Un- rendered with Не- in Rus.

Prefixal-suffixal type prefix+root+suffix.

Characteristic of both parts of speech in both lang.

Non-affixal type of word-building. The most productive model is Noun – verb. This type embraces a great number of derivative words in Eng.

Ex. A walk – to walk.

In Rus it is less productive. Some grammarians distinguish the same model

The Verb into a Noun – (ходить – ход)

A Noun – into verb ( глаз – глазеть)

A noun in Instrumental case changes into an Adverb. Любоваться ранним утром. Утром мы пошли на речку.

A Noun is formed from attributive word-combinations Ex. Столовая комната – столовая. Военный человек – военный.

30. Typology of compound words

31. Types of bilinguism

32. Types of language interference

3. Comparative phonetics and typology

Phonetics as we know studies the way how sounds are produced and comprehended. The function of sounds is examined by another linguistic discipline phonology. These terms are taken in European linguistics, but Americans use the term phonology to both phonetics and phonology. There are different aspects of sounds:

1. Articulatory phonetics – studies how sounds are organized at which location and in which manner a sound is produced.

2. Acoustic phonetics – examines the length frequency and pitch of sounds. Special instruments are required to measure and analyze the sounds while they travel via the channel.

3. Auditory phonetics – studies what happens inside the ear and brain when sounds are finally received. It is also interested in our ability to identify and differentiate sounds.

Articulatory phonetics

It concentrates on studying how sounds are produced in the human vocal track – that is manner of articulation and place of articulation. The production of any sound involves the movement of ear. Speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords. Such sounds are called – pulmonic sounds. Sounds may be produced when the air is pushed out, they are called igressive sounds. The majority of sounds in languages of the world are produced by pulmonic igressive air stream mechanism.

Sounds fall into two major classes consonants and vowels. Sounds differ according to the voicing location and manner of production. Any change of these factors may alter a sound. If the stream of air leaves the vocal cord unhinged the resulting sound is a vowel; if the stream of air is abstracted, gets some obstruction (is blocked) the resulting sound is a consonant. Consonants can be voiced and unvoiced – p t k – unvoiced, b d g – voiced. Sounds like p t k are known as explosives, because they are accompanied by explosure. Fricatives are sounds which may be prolonged in pronunciation as - s f v , and aspirate is a sound made by breathing immediately after explosure. Consonants in both languages are classified according to the organs which take part in their production. They may be made by teeth, the gums, the hard and a soft palate and the lips. The consonant made by both lips – is called bilabial w b p m , бпм. A consonant made by the low lip articulating against the teeth is called labia-dental – f v – ф в. A consonant made by the blade of the tongue which touches upon the upper teeth – is called dental th th –т з д. Vela-consonants are made by the back of the tongue being pressed against the velum – k g – к г . When we pronounce sound “L” the stream of air passes on both sides of the tongue, so this sound is called lateral or side-sound. In both languages sounds M N are nasals, when air passes through the nose.