§ 7. Ft as the subject of the sentence.

When the pronoun if is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing: then it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it does not represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function: then it is a formal subject.

480. When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the follow­ing meanings:

481. It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea —the personal it.

The door opened. It was opened by a young girl of thirteen or fourteen. (Dickens)

If this is a liberty, it isn't going to mean a thing. (Heym)

482. It points out some person or thing expressed by a predica­tive noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding state­ment, thus having a demonstrative meaning —the demonstra­tive it.

It is John.

It was a large room with a great window. (Dickens) Dick came home late, it provoked his father. (Lindsay)

In the last two cases it is close to this and is usually translat­ed into Russian by это.

483. Sometimes the. pronoun it is a formal subject, i. e. it does not represent any person or thing.

Here we must distinguish:

(1) the impersonal it; (2) the introductory or anticipatory it; (3) the emphatic it.

1. The impersonal it is used:

(a) to denote natural phenomena (such as the state of the weath­er, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative.

It often rains in autumn.

It is cold in winter.

It is stuffy in here.

It is delightfully quiet in the night.

Note.— The state of the weather can also be expressed by sentences in which the subject denoting the state of things is introduced by the construc­tion there is. In such sentences the noun introduced by the construc­tion there is is the subject.

There was a heavy frost last night.

There was a fine rain falling over the trees, the flowers, and the people silting on the benches in the garden.

(b) to denote time and distance.

It is five minutes past six. It is morning already.

How far is it from your office to the bank? (Galsworthy) It is a long way to the station.

N о t e.— Sentences with the impersonal it as subject "very often correspond to Russian impersonal one-member sentences.

It is late. Поздно.

It is freezing. Морозит.

It is cold. Холодно.

It is hot. Жарко.

The following sentences, however, correspond to Russian two-member personal sentences:

It is raining. Идет дождь.It is snowing. Идет снег.It is hailing. Идет град.

484. The introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real sub­ject.

It's no use disguising facts.

It was curious to observe that child.

Note.— Some grammarians treat this it as the real subject and the rest of the sentence as the predicate.

485. The emphatic it is used for emphasis.

It was Winifred who went up to him. (Galsworthy)

It was he who had brought back George to Amelia. (Thackeray)

THE PREDICATE

§ 8. The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing¹ denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent upon the subject.

Note.— This definition does not cover sentences with the formal it as subject.

¹ The word thing is used in a broad sense.

In these sentences the predicate expresses the state of weather, time, or distance, and the subject only makes the sentence structurally complete.

As a rule the predicate contains a finite verb which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect, and sometimes person and number. According to the structure and the meaning of the predicate we distinguish two main types: the simple predicate and the com­pound predicate.