5. Types of Meaning. The semantic structure.

The words are not monosemantic, they are polysemantic. Each meaning is called lexical rneaning.And this number of meanings form semantic structure of the word. Generally we distinct grammatical and lexical meanings: time flies - grammatical meaning, time fly- lexical meaning_: "ff/es" possesses lexico-grammatica) meaning. Lexical meaning within itself possesses connotational and denotational meanings. Denotational is the main meaning - word-denotative. Connotational is the shades of this meaning. Denotational (referential) meaning can be: 1) Significative; 2) Stylistic; 3) Expressive; 4) Emotional; 5) Evaluative. Communicative: we express approval, disapproval - stylistic connotation. Expressive: try to show not only attitude, but also to emphasize it,

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6, Motivation. Types of Motivation.

Motivation is the reationship between morphemic structure and meaning. There are 4 types of Motivation: 1) Phoenetic Motivation -the similarity between the sound the word made of and the meaning of the word: bees - buzz, sakes - hiss. In English initial "p" means disapproval: phy- фу. Sound symbolism - some combinations of letters may meen smth other: sting - a quick movement; initial 7Г- also: flop; ^щдГ: glare, glited - associated with fire. 2) Morophologica! motivation: there can be Fully motivated, Partially motivated and Non-motivated words: blackbird-fully motivated, because all the morphemes are clear; repeat is non-motivated: all one-syllable words are non-motivated; strawberry - partially motivated, cause straw has no connections with berries, also: T-shirt, U-turn. 3) Semantic motivation: there can be Direct and Figurative meaning. Figurative; a foot of the mountain, a mouth of the river Direct meaning: flowers and colours: pink - розовый, гвоздика. Humming bird- roduces this long coninuous sound. 4) Graphical motivation - mathematicians. + or- more or less.

7, Notion and meaning.

Meaning (a component of a word through which a concept is communicated) belongs to linguistics, while Notion (concept) belongs to the category of logic. Logic is international category, but the meaning is national. Notions may be represented with different meanings: man, человек. Notion is neutral, but meaning may express people attitude to what they are talking about. E.G. with the help of synonyms: look, stare,.. There are also some words in English, which have meaning but no notion: Articles, Prepositions, Interjections,

8, Semantic change. Causes of Semantic Change.

Semantic change is the development of the word and its semantic structure. The language is a system, its body develops and all the units too. If we try to compare the meaning of the word of different languages or of different times, they are different: I'm fond of reading: In O.E. fond meant foolish - no connection.

Linguists payed a great attention on Semantic change. At the end of 19^th - beginning of 20^th century Brill and Poff investigated Semantic change and noticed that some words specialize their meaning and some - generalize. Specialize means narrowing: case (event) - becomes case in medicine. Generalize - when a word extends its meaning: to fly - to move with the help of wings - becomes to move quickly, without any wings, As any problem, Semantic change has its nature, reasons, problems and as a result -Causes There are two types of Semantic changes: 1) Linguistic; 2) Extra-linguistic (any change i the society which results the change in naming objects: inventing a new word {on the basis of existing linguistics), borrowing, to name with the help of existing word-association): a box (ложа) - association, cause it looks like a box; black box -mysterious: in real it's orange. 1) Linguistic cause may be: a) Syntagmatic; b) Paradigmatic, a) Syntagmatic. There is a term - ellipsis, when instead of two components we use only one: to starve, to propose; b) Paradigmatic level -discrimination of synonyms, It means that there existed two or more synonymic words but in the ciurse of time they changesd their meaning: deer denoted any beast then a word animal appeared. First the coincided, but then they became two different words: deer - special beast, animal - general beast.

9. Types of Semantic change. Result \

There are Direct and Figurative meanings of the word, so we try to figure out all the changes of meanings and its pecularities. It's closely connected to the stylistics, it states figurative meaning.

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We destinguish 1) Similarity and 2) Contiguity of meanings. 1) Similarity of meanings

- metaphor, based on the shape, position, duration: head- the head of department (position). 2) Contiguity: a) Metonymy - also transform the meaning, but we use part for a whole: a plate of soup, b) Instrumental metonymy - we use an instrument: the writers are the best pen\ 3) Positional metonymy - the name of the place instead of people: Kyiv's reply, 4) Synecdoche - pert for the whole, name of the inventor or head of the company for the whole company; Macentosh, Diesel, Xerox; 5) Hyperbole-exaggeration: hundred years; 6) Litota - minimize: / hate it- it's not good] 7) Euphemism - to milder the situation - figurative meaning; 8) Zoozemy: when we try to find out similarity between an animal and a person: deer party- мальчишник, hen party

- девичник, a fox, a snake...

The Results of Semantic change are the foliowings: First of all we observe the changes in denotational and connotational meaning. These changes are in the focus of linguistics, it notices the changes in denotationai meaning first of alL The change results in the restrictional meaning or extentional meaning: queen - first of all denotes a woman, a squaw was the synonym of it; to write - O.E. to scratch - handwirttngs, writings now. Generalization of the meaning (extention) - to fly. Connotational component: 1) emigration of the neaning; 2) degradation of the meaning, 1) Emiliorating development - the meaning is improved: minister now is high-rank position, O,E, - boy, servant; knight helped and defended his master; bad fellow meant a villager or peasant. 2) Degradation. In the course of time some old meanings died out, we can't find them in the dictionary: a spoon was a thing of wood. There are some words with lots of meaning, and it's very difficult to find the first one. While speaking about semantic change, there is a qualitative change - appearance of polysemantic words; qualitative words are lost, dead, so appered homonymy. Semantic change is the universal problem, in each language; it is researched diachronically: how, what is the result of this change.