17. Synonymy in synchronic and diachronic approaches.

18. Phraseology different approaches, Synchronic approach.

Vinogradov - semantic classification based on the degree of the cohesion of the phraseological units. He classified them into 3 groups

1) Phraseological combinations / collocations. They are motivated - we can deduce the meaning knowing the meaning of the words of the phrase, one word having the transfer of meaning ("to have lunch").

2) Phraseological unities - motivated but the components' meanings are not

all of them), the metaphore being slight and transparent ("to lose one's head").

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3) Phraseological fusions - non-motivated word-combinations. One can't deduce the whole meaning with the help of the components. Full transfer of meaning occurs ("white elephant'¹}. Structural classification - according to the key word of the phrase:

1) Verbal;

2) Substantive,

3) Adjectival:

4) Adverbial,

5) Interjectionai Classification by Smirnitsky.

1) one-summit units (phraseological units with one meaningful part) - phrasal

verbs, verbal, adverbial phrases f to be tired of); 2} multi-summit units (more than one meaningful part) - attributive

substantive, verbal, adverbial (^llwhite lie"). Communicative classification by Kunin.

1) idioms - stable word-groups characterized by complete or partial transfer of meaning;

2) semi-idioms;

3) phraseological units,

4) communicative phraseological units (proverbs, sayings).

Diachronic approach.

19, Phraseological units vs. free word-combinations. Criteria of distinction-Phraseological units are word-combinations characterized by semantic unity and complexity as well as structural inseparateability and invariability. The term itself phraseological units to denote a specific group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted in our country. Attempts have been made to approach the problem of phraseology in different ways. Up till now, however, there is a certain divergence of opinion as to the essential feature of phraseological units as distinguished from other word-groups and the nature of phrases that can be properly termed phraseological units. The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact that the border­line between free or variable word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined. The so-called free word-groups are only relatively free as collocability of their member-words is fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at least some of them very close to set-phrases. Phraseological units are comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the extremes of complete motivation and variability of member-words on the one hand and lack of motivation combined with complete stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure on the other hand there are innumerable border-line cases.

However the existing terms, e.g. set-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which centre on the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups. The term s e t-p h ras e implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The term idiom generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation. This term habitually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit universally accepted in our country. The term word-equivalent

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stresses not only the semantic but also the functional inseparability of certain word-groups and their aptness to function in speech as single words.

Thus differences in terminology reflect certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish between free word-groups and a specific type of linguistic units generally known as phraseology. These criteria and the ensuing classification are briefly discussed below.

Free word-combinations are those whose components are in their direct meaning and they can form new word-combinations. Also they are relatively free, but this freedom is restricted by grammar, combinability, & common sense. The criteria.

Semantic criterion - one idea stands for the whole word-group (in phraseological units), whereas free word-combinations can be translated word-by-word. Structural criterion - one cannot take away any part of an idiom from it nor introduce a new part into it; a phraseological unit possesses grammatical inchangeability ("to be wet from head to foot" - not "to feet").

20. Synchronic and Diachronic approaches to phraseology. Synchronic approach. The attempts to classify Phraseological units synchrinically were undertaken. Vinogradov proposed his semantic classification which was based on the degree of cohesion between the components of phraseological units. He devided them into 3 groups: 1) Phraseological combinations (collocations), 2} Phraseological unities; 3) Phraseological fusions. We put all the PhrUn. in the way that in the first group the degree of cohesion is the weekest. 1) PhrUn, of the 1^st group are motivated. It means that we can deduce the meaning of the PhrUn-s from direct meaning and some components which possess transfer of meaning: to have lunch, boozing friends. 2) These groups are also motivated, but the meanings of componnts are not in their direct meaning or not all of them. The metaphor on which this shift of meaning is based is transparent: last drop, to lose one's head. It's very difficult ot put the line between the 1^st and the 2^nd points, 3) The same between the 2^nd and the 3^rd, but in the 3^rd it's easier to find examples. Fusions are word combinations which are not motivated, we can't deduce the meaning of the whole from the meaning of the components, and the semantic complexity is full - so, full transfer of meaning: Jack of afl trades, white elephant, red tape, ' ^:

There is Structural classification, where all the units are devided into key words of these units (belonging to some part of speech: 1) Verbal: to hurts into laughing, to pull one's legs: 2) Substantive: red tape, white dove: 3) Adjective: as busy as bee, as cool as cucumber 4) Adverbeal: once upon a time, every now and then: 5) Interjection: for God's sake! By George!

Scholars try to combine both Structural and Semantic classifications. Professor Smernitsky created his own classification. He differentiated words into neutral and coloured. He devided all Phr.Un-s into 1) one-summit units; 2) two- or all-summit units. 1) All Ph,Un-s which have only one meaningful part: to be glad, to be tired, by heart (prepositional substantive). We destinguish PhrUn-s which are called: a) Verbal-Adverbal - work as Verbs: to put up with - the first part is meaninful; b)Units which have the meaninful part in the second place: to be fond of, to be tired ot c) Prepositional-substantive is equal to an Adverb: in accordance with, by heart. 2) Two or more meaninful parts. According to the part of speech: a) Attributive-substantive; white lie_t red tape, black art: b) Verbal-substantive (equal to Verb in a sentence): rain cats and dogs, pull one's leg: c) Adverbeal: every other day.,. Classification made by Kunin is one of the most famous Structural and Communicative classifications: 1) first Part - Idioms; 2) Semi-idioms; 3) Phraseornatic units. He indicates that idiom is a PhrUn, which is a stable word group

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characterized by completely or partially transferred meaning - semantic complexity. He also added that communicative PhrUn-s are equal to proverbs or sayings; you can bring a horse to the stream but you can't make it drink,

Diachronic classification. Larin investigated historical development of Phr.Units. The result was the following: at firts, there were free word combinations (one was used in direct second - in figurative meaning, 3^rd - not motivated): the red tape (clerks used to show this tape to show that they are busy), white collar (people worked in the offices), blue collar (worked at plants).

21. Word-structure. Types of morphemes.

Word is an autonomous unit of the language, minimum free form. It consists ofroot morphemes & affixes. Morpheme defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units. Like a word a morpheme is a two-facet language unit, an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-pattern. Unlike a word a morpheme is not an autonomous unit and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe "form "+ -erne. The Greek suffix -erne has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

Morphemes are subdivided into root - morphemes and affixational morphemes. The root morpheme is the lexical center of the word. It is the semantic nucleus of a word with which no grammatical properties of the word are connected, Affixationa! morphemes include inflections and derivational affixes.

Morphemes which may occur in isolation and function as independent words are called free morphemes {pay, sum, form).

Morphemes which are not found in isolation are called bound morphemes {-er, un-₇ -less)

Inflection is an affixal morpheme has grammatical meaning. Derivational morpheme is responsible for word-formation