Fallacies
1. Example: Person A: I believe it is state’s obligation to support the
poor.
Person B: Of course, you would say that. You are poor and a
communist on top of that.
Type of fallacy: Ad hominem (Latin: against the man)- a claim or argument is
rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the person
presenting the claim.
2. Example: Person A: Taking this medicine will help you to lose weight
without any bad side –effects.
Person B: How do you know?
Person A: That famous actress said so and she is so slim.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to authority- a claim is supported by an expertise
of an expert whose expertise is dubious.
! Reasoning from authority can also be a sound type of reasoning. The following conditions must be fulfilled when checking if the expert’s opinion can be used:
The person has sufficient expertise in the subject.
The claim being made is within her area of expertise.
There is an adequate degree of agreement of other experts in the field.
The person in question is not significantly biased.
The area of expertise is a legitimate area of expertise.
The authority is identified.
3. Example: Person A: People should first find a good job before getting
married and starting a family.
Person B: What is your reasoning?
Person A: Ask anyone who is married and they will tell you
so.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to popular belief – a claim is supported with what
constitutes an opinion of many people.
! Sometimes it is a sound reasoning when explaining social habits, customs or taboos.
4. Example: Person A: I am sure that some form of benevolent divine being
exists.
Person B: What makes you so certain?
Person A: If such being did not exits the world would be a
terrible place.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to consequences of belief – something must be true on the
basis that if it was not true, negative consequences would ensue.
5. Example: A politician: You must vote for our party. If you do not vote for
us, something bad may happen to you.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to fear – if an arguer does not accept the claim (in the
example above- a party’s program) it might have negative
consequences.
6. Example: A student: I have not submitted my assignment, Professor,
because my parents have split up and my younger
brother was ill.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to pity – an arguer does not provide rational support for
the claim but instead appeals to the listeners’ sympathy.
7. Example: Son: Father, why do not you allow me to live on my own.
Father: It is a tradition that the youngest son should live with his
parents.
Type of fallacy: Appeal to tradition- an arguer supports the claim by referring to
tradition, and argues that something should be the case since it has
been considered so for ages.
8. Example: Person A: Marihuana should remain illegal.
Person B: I strongly disagree with you. It is not harmful and
people should be given free choice if they want to
smoke marihuana or not.
Person A: If marihuana were not harmful it would not be
prohibited by law.
Type of fallacy: Begging the question (circular argument)-one of the premises
includes the claim (or assumption) that the conclusion is true.
9. Example: Person A: Poland will win in the World Cup this year.
Person B: Are they such a good team?
Person A: Yes, our goalkeeper plays for Liverpool, the striker
and two midfielders play for Juventus and …
Type of fallacy: The fallacy of composition – the conclusion is drawn about a
whole based on the features of its elements.
10. Example: Person A: That friend of your must be really rich.
Person B: Why do you think so?
Person A: He is from the US and it is one of the richest
countries in the world.