3. Names of institutions , organizations and periodicals.

This classes of proper names are usually transcribed – General Motors – Дженерал Моторз, Times- Таймс. But there are also telling names of old inns, streets in historical novels are translated –The red line –Красная лента гостиница.

4.Scientific and technological terms, besides monosymy is typical of numerals, names of months, of the week and so on.

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. They are characterized by a tendency to be mono-semantic in given branch of science and technology and therefore easily call forth the required concept. For ex: Calory –калория,Posisemantic-многозначный. It should be taken into consideration that one and the same term may have different meanings in different branches of science. For ex : Line –конвейер, трубопровод. In some cases there is not terminological exposure has produced polisemi even within the same branch. For ex: поджигающий электрод – Keeper life electrode, trigger electrode.

There is another group of words of terminological nature – names of animals, birds. These words may acquire a figurative meaning in the source language, which has no equivalent in the tagged language. For ex: Tiger – маленький жокей.

Names of plants also belong to this group. For ex: Oak – дуб.

TRANSLATION IF POLISEMANTIC, PSEUDO-INTERNATIONAL WORDS AND NON-EQUIVALENTS.

1.Translation of polysemantic words.

Different meanings of polysemantic words are revealed in the context. The context is a minimum stretch of speech diagnosing each individual meaning of the word. The context reveals concrete or abstract meanings of a word, its direct or transfer meaning. For example- truth – tell me the truth, is used while in the sentence – to understand and to know the reality it is necessary to have a theory of knowledge corresponding to truth. (in abstract philosophical meaning. –для постигнуть действительность необхидо…..соответствующую истине; to cripple – smith was crippled (direct meaning-искалечен) in the war. Reactionaries crippled (transferred meaning – подрывают) the national movement in Africa. Beasides the context reveals a free or bound use of the word for ex : he made a pace (is used free)or two forward- он сделал шага два вперед. He kept pace (не отставал от века – is bound) with the types.

Sometimes macro context (paragraph,chapter, a whole book) is necessary for a correct interpretation of the meaning. For ex: “the wretched (несчастна /негодная(коварная)) woman was in a brilliant full toilet”

TRANSLATION OF PSEUDO INTERNATIONAL WORDS.

There is distinct group of words which constitute a special difficulty for a translato – they are called pseudo international words. As distinct from genuine international word which have more or less similar phonetic form and carry the same meaning pseudo international words differ in meaning from language to language either completely or partially. For ex:

True national	Pseudo international words
Algebra Television Electronics	Commutator –коллектор Complexion – цвет лица Elevator – лифт

Pseudo international words are the translator’s false friends.

For ex: there were attempts to sabotage (вывести из строя основные объекты коммунального обслуживания) key services in the Town.

Massive – BBC television will give a massive coverage (широко освещать) to the general election.

Прогресс – monosemantic – and has positive connotations. The meaning of the English “progress” is neutral and can apply to any movement. For ex: “Rake’s Progress” – «Жизнь Полеса»; her progress about London was one thrilling adventure – ее знакомство с Лондоном было увлекательным увлечением.

Sometimes the meaning of international words is identical in English and in Russian, but the collocation pattern is different, which prevents the use of the corresponding Russian word in translation. For ex: never before in the history of the world have there been so many persons engaged in the translation of both secular and religious materials. – материалы. Переводом как светской, так и духовной литературы.

RENDERING OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS

A contextual meaning arises in the context. It is not part of the semantic structure of the word. Every word possesses and an enormous potentiality for generating new contextual meanings. These occasional contextual meanings are not arbitrary - they are always predetermined by the semantic structure of the word. A contextual meaning possible in one language can be impossible in another. For ex: in atomic war women and children will be the first hostages. (заложник) – первыми жертвами в атомной войне будут женщины и дети. The contextual meaning of the word hostage is ‘victim’, which is implicit in its dictionary meaning. But a similar contextual meaning can’t be generated by the Russian word ‘заложник’. Thus ‘жертва’ is the only possible equivalent.

Contextual meanings often produce a strong effect performing a stylistic function of deceived\defeated expectancy. The translator is confronted with a double difficulty, he must avoid turning it down and must not violate the norms of the tagged language.

TRANSLATION OF ‘NON-EQUIVALENTS’

Non-equivalents are the words of the source language which either have no equivalents in the target language or no equivalent denotatom in tagged culture. They may be divided into two groups. The first group consists of so-called realia-words, denoting things, objects, features of national life, customs, habits, so on. For ex: the house of commons, a teach-in, a drive-in, cricket. The second group embraces words which for some linguistic reason have no equivalents in the target language. For ex: conservationist, readership, glimpse, backbencher.

3 ways of rendering non-equivalents:

1. By direct borrowing. In this case transcription is used. For ex- impeachment –импичмент, knowhow – ноухау. The restriction here is that the translator must not abuse his right to use borrowings and must avoid нагружать the Russian text with numerous and often unnecessary borrowings. Such borrowings as – пресс-релиз, тич-ин, are frequently not understood by general reader, it is better to resort to interpreting translation to make them clear. Пресс-релиз-материалы для прессы, тич-ин – собрание преподов или студентов для выражения своего против политики. Ты какашка

2. By translation loans – the house of Commons – палата общин, backbencher – члены оппозиции сидячие на задних рядах, brain drain –утечка мозгов.

3. By descriptive or interpreting translation. For ex: landslide – победа на выборах с огромным перевесом голосов. A stranger – частично занятый корреспондент зарплата от количества слов, wishful thinking – принятие желаемого за действительное. Conversationalist – любитель природы понимающий важность ее сохранения.

THE RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS

Emotive meaning may be regarded as one of the objective semantic features proper to words as linguistic units and must not be confused with contextual emotive meaning that words may acquire in speech. Emotive meaning varies in different word-classes. In interjections the emotive element prevails while in function words it is practically non-existent. The emotive meaning is based on connotations – positive, negative or neutral. Russian is rich in emotive suffixes, whose meaning is rendered into English by additional lexical items. (for ex: домишко – a small wretched house) or different lexemes (домишко –hovel). Some words may acquire a negative or positive connotation in different context. For ex: glamour, glamorous, - he was captivated by the vulgar glamour and shoddy brilliance of the scene before him–он был пленен вульгарным блеском и дешевой роскошью окружающего (negative). They were attracted for the moment by the glamour of the dancer or the откровенный sensuality of the woman – их на мгновение привлек романтический ореол танцовщицы или ее откровенная чувственность. Kershe’s R is not lacking glamour. Facially he is a smiling common angel. – он не лишен обояния, у него лицо улыбающегося падшего ангела.

Sometimes differences in usage or valiancy do not allow the use of the Russian referential equivalent and the translator is forced to resort to a lexical replacement with the emotive meaning preserved. For ex: the British communist party played a proud role in the struggle against Hitlerism. – партии сыграла выдающуюся роль в войне против

The emotive meaning often determines the translator’s choice - for ex: endless – is neutral in its connotations, бесконечный – has negative connotations , boring or tiresome. – in the translation – the endless resolutions received by the national peace committee – бесчисленные, многочисленные резолюции получ нац комитетом защиты мира. Озарило –positive connotation in the Russian, but in the English its equivalent neutral – Dawn- Horror dawned in her face.