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Kao et al., we used a different rat strain with our studies.”

Second, explain unexpected findings. For example, “We were surprised to find that a normal WBC was predictive of morbidity following endovascular interventions.” Third, describe patterns, principles, and relationships that the results show. Fourth, address if the results have theoretical or practical implications. Do the results relate to other situations or other species? Do the results help us to understand the broader topic? By addressing these issues, you will have provided the reader with additional insight into your study and how to place your results in context of the greater scientific field of study.

In the fourth paragraph, address limitations and/or weaknesses of the study. Let’s be candid – there is no point in ignoring the limitations of your study. All studies have weaknesses and/or limitations, and if you do not address them, you are leaving yourself wide open for criticism by the reviewers. Thus, address the limitations and weaknesses openly and discuss why these limitations or weaknesses exist and how they may affect interpretation of the data.

The fifth and final paragraph should be the concluding paragraph. Provide a brief and global summary of the results and what it all means in context of the larger clinical problem discussed in the introduction. Signal the end using phrases such as “In conclusion” or “In summary.” Indicate the importance of the work by stating the applications of the work, recommendations suggested from the work, implications of the work, or speculations about the importance of the work. Remember – don’t overstate the conclusion – understate it.

Acknowledgments

The beauty of the acknowledgments section is its simplicity and importance. This is where most journals require the listing of support from funding agencies. Also, acknowledge individuals that contributed to the work but did not meet criteria for authorship. Gifts of special reagents, animals,

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software, etc., can be described here. Administrative support can be acknowledged. Of note, many journals now require that authorization be obtained from all individuals named in the acknowledgments section, so be sure to read the “Instructions to Authors” on this matter. Last, some journals ask for conflict of interest information or additional disclosure information in this section, or specifically have separate sections addressing those topics.

Abstract

The best time to write the abstract is after the manuscript is completed. The length of the abstract will be clearly stated by the journal, and it is prudent to adhere to the length requirements. Sentence writing should be concise and succinct in the abstract, given the length requirements.Additionally, be careful to adhere to the formatting guidelines, as each journal has unique subheadings that must be used. In general, the abstract should provide an overview of the paper that makes sense when read alone AND when read with the paper. The abstract should provide enough information for the casual reader to understand what the manuscript is about. Include information from each section of the manuscript in the abstract, being careful to include, highlight, or emphasize important data and take-home messages, as often the abstract is the only part of the manuscript that is read. The abstract should not contain information that is not included in the manuscript. However, there may be some data in the manuscript that is not necessary to include in the abstract if it is not germane to the overall conclusion of the paper.

Title

A good title attracts the reader to the manuscript. Many readers scan tables of content or search engine results such as PubMed. The title is typically the only aspect of the

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manuscript that can entice the reader to continue reading.

The title identifies the main topic and/or message of the manuscript. A typical structure of a title is “The Effect of X on Y in Z,” with the independent variable being X, the dependent variable being Y, and the animal or population or material being Z. It is wise to be precise with the title. Do not use “Effect of” when you mean “Proliferation of,” or “Increase in,” or “Reduction in.” Last, be careful with the use of “and” and “with” when joining the independent and dependent variables. The following is an example of an ambiguous versus a precise title: “Arterial Diameter and Flow Rates in Porcine Arteries” versus “Arterial Diameter Determines Flow Rates in Porcine Arteries.”

Authorship

Authorship is a very sensitive but incredibly important area. It is best addressed before the manuscript is written. Many journals have published guidelines indicating criteria that should be met in order to achieve authorship. In fact, many journals now require the corresponding author or each author to confirm that they have made a substantial contribution to the manuscript and indicate their precise role in the study. Each journal is different, but major areas for consideration include the authors’ roles in (1) study design, (2) study execution/data acquisition, (3) data analysis, (4) manuscript preparation, (5) manuscript revision, and (6) final approval. Commensurate with these requirements, many journals now have a limit to the number of authors that can be included. If additional authors meet criteria for authorship that exceed the limit, most editors will allow an exception to the authorship number rule if the authors’ roles can be documented. This is often done in the cover letter, or on the separate authorship role form, supplied by the journal.

The first-author and senior-author designations are traditionally the most important roles. The first author is usually the person who conducted the majority of the study and

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actually wrote up the manuscript. The senior author is usually the person who provided overall supervision of the project, provided funding for the project, and has final approval on all aspects of the study and manuscript. In today’s climate of multidisciplinary research, these designations are being challenged. Publications that represent work from several laboratories may have two investigators that truly contributed to the work equally and want to both receive first-author status. In these situations, the first two authors can be listed with an asterisk on the cover page as sharing co-authorship. A common statement indicating this would be: “*H. Chen and L. Kao contributed equally to this work.” Sharing senior authorship is an area that is less well addressed. However, I have recently adopted the use of “**M. Kibbe and G. Ameer share senior authorship” with my publications in which myself and my collaborator share funding and oversight of a project equally. First and senior authorship has significant implications for promotion and tenure. Thus, I hope that the Council of Editors will develop and adopt universal guidelines on how to address shared first and senior authorship in a manner similar to how the National Institutes of Health developed and adopted the multi-PI mechanism for research grants. I also hope that promotion and tenure committees will recognize these designations and give appropriate credit for these designations when evaluating a candidate.

The last part of authorship that deserves mention is the use of the full name with the middle initial. In this electronic age, many investigators search PubMed or MEDLINE to find publications from a certain author. Use of the middle initial can help to distill the publications to only that author, especially when an author has a common last name. For example, search of PubMed for “Smith M.” revealed >14,000 publications. Search of PubMed for “Smith M.M.” revealed just over 400 publications. If Smith M.M. did not use his/her middle initial, it would be very difficult to locate all studies from that individual. Therefore, be consistent and try to use your middle initial on all publications.