Richard Rogers

British architecture is going through a dynamic period, with several big international names such as James Stirling and Norman Foster. Perhaps the architect best known in Britain is the designer of the Millennium Dome, Richard Rogers. He too, has carried out many major projects abroad. He was responsible for the airport in Marseille, numerous office complexes in Japan and the USA, and (with an Italian, Renzo Piano) for the great Centre Pompidou in Paris. In his own country he has worked on many smaller projects, such as the flats shown in the photograph on the right. But he is best known for the most spectacular modern building in the financial centre of London - the Lloyd's Building. Although it contains a very conservative insurance business, and is in the oldest part of London, it is an extraordinary and daring piece of modern architecture - all steel and glass, with pipes and lifts on the outside.

Richard Rogers is also modern in his philosophy. He is extremely concerned about the environmental aspects of design: can a building use solar power, can it make the most of natural light, and can it function without wasteful air conditioning? He is keen to make London a better place to live in, with less traffic and more spaces in which people can enjoy city life. Talking about famous parts of the city like Oxford Circus, Parliament Square and Marble Arch, he says: "They are dangerous, degrading, inhuman and unnecessary spaces where vehicles have replaced people, and the servant has become the master. ... clean, live-work cities based upon the bicycle and upon walking, are absolutely possible." Happily, the government is beginning to follow Rogers' advice and the future of London is looking brighter; there are, for example, plans for a car-free Trafalgar Square.

Topics for discussion.

• Which are more common in your area – houses or flats? Which do you prefer?

• Do you enjoy walking round old buildings such as castles? If so, why?

• Is the architecture in your country very different from that in Britain?

• Why do you think architectural styles change from time to time?

• Do you take notice of new buildings around you? Which ones do you admire?

• What should be the priorities of architects today – beauty, environmental factors or what?

Part III Amsterdam

The city of Amsterdam (formerly Amsterdam) lies at latitude 52°22'30" north and longitude 4°53'48" east, in the Dutch province of North Holland. The centre of the old town, Dam Square, lies 2.20 meters above sea level on flat peat land at the dammed mouth of the River Amstel south of the IJ, an extended bay of the former Zuiderzee. The city covers an area of 20,743 ha, of which 4,184 ha are water. The population of Amsterdam in 2003 was 719,500 - 5.24% of the Netherlands' 13.8m inhabi­tants.

Amsterdam was the most important trading city of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (1588-1795). Only in 1813 did Amsterdam become the capital of the Netherlands, when after the French occupation (1795-1813) the Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded. The title of capital is only a symbolic one, since the seat of the government, the ministries and the Parliament remain in the Hague, the old residence of the Counts of Holland, which had also since the end of the 16th century been the seat of central institutions of the Republic, the Prince of Orange, the Stadtholder, and the government of the province of Holland. The kings of the House of Orange, however, are inaugurated in Amster­dam's New Church on Dam Square.

The oldest document mentioning Amsterdam is a toll privilege granted by Count Floris V of Holland in 1275 to the homines manentes apud Amestelledamme, the people living near the Amstel Dam. The inhabitants were exempted from paying toll-dues to the Count in the interests of their trade. The dam across the River Amstel was not much older than the town itself, dating back to about 1270. Thanks to the privilege granted in 1275, Amsterdam was able to establish itself as a trading town, and development began quickly. Amsterdam received civic rights under a charter from Guy of Hainault, Lord of Amstel; these rights were confirmed in 1342 by William IV of Hainault, Count of Holland.

About 1300 the city government consisted of schout en schepenen (sheriff and aldermen) who exercised jurisdiction, enacted keuren (regulations), managed the city's affairs with specialized assistance from four raden or burgemeesters (councillors or burgomasters). During the 14th century the burgomasters became the actual governors of the city, with particular charge of municipal finances and public works such as care of the town ramparts, walls, dykes and canals, and the Town Hall and other municipal buildings, while the power of the burgomasters grew, the duties of the sheriff and aldermen were gradually confined to jurisdiction. In the first half of the 15th century the care of the municipal finances and the execution of public works were delegated to a board of four thesaurieren (treasurers) under the supervision of the burgomasters, who also supervised in the second half of the 15th century the board of fabriekmeesters or timmermeesters (masters of the works or master carpenters), which was charged with executing public works and ensuring the observance of building regula­tions.

The medieval town centre near St Olof's Gate was surrounded by a wall from 1380. A new fortress was built in 1481. The oldest monuments are the ecclesiastic institutions of the various religions. The originally cruciform Oude Kerk (Old Church) dates from the 13th century. The Beguine Dutch lay order was existing in 1346. Their buildings became known as the Begijnhof (Beguinage). The oldest, the Wooden House (No. 34), dates from the second half of the 15th century; No. 6 still possesses a wooden frame behind its stone facade. The Oudezijds or St Olof's Chapel (Oudersplein 13), in origin a 15th century chapel, had been adjoined to the St Olof's Gate demolished in the 17th c. The Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) on Dam Square is a three-aisled, in part five-aisled basilica built originally in the 15th century but several times destroyed by fire and rebuilt. The Oude Walenkerk (Old Walloon Church) was also begun in the 15th century; since 1578 it has served a congregation of French-speaking Calvinists.

The oldest type of house in Amsterdam was made of wood, but it gradually gave way to stone housing because of the fire risk. The only wooden houses still in existence are in the Begijnhof and in the Zeedijk. Amsterdam's most typical houses are narrow and deep and with one or two floors built on a voorhuis (hall) with in insteek, a room forming a kind of gallery to the hall. There was sometimes an independent achterhuis behind. Until 1650 most houses were built with stepped gables, from which more elaborate versions such as the Vredeman de Vries and the Hendrick de Keyser types developed. The stepped gable was superseded by the 'neck' facade, sometimes divided by pilasters, the most beautiful examples of which were designed by Philips Vingboons.

The 16th century was a period of unrest, in which the Reformation coincided with mounting opposition to absolutism. The enmities were deepened as the County of Holland, just like the other Dutch provinces, was in personal union with the House of Habsburg. During the reign of Philip II (1555-1581), King of Spain, a growing resistance to the activities of the Inquisition and other measures that conflicted with Dutch interests led to the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648). Amsterdam joined the side of the revolt only in 1578, but played an import­ant role in the independent republic that was formed on the basis of the Union of Utrecht in 1579.

In spite of its rather unfavourable position on the Zuiderzee, Amsterdam in the 15th and particularly the 16th century developed into the foremost trading city of Holland, with its activities centring on the Baltic trade. The oldest parts of the town are bounded by the Burg-wallen (city canals), within which the shipping business was originally confined. Later, room for shipping activities was found at the Oude Waal and Kromme Waal outside the fortifications in the area known as the Lastage.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Amsterdam became the centre for trade with the East Indies and a world port and staple city for colonial goods. The East and West Indian Companies built warehouses, offices, shipyards and maintenance yards.

From 1613 onwards the old medieval centre was enlarged with the famous ring of canals, which was enclosed by the fortified Singelgracht. Windmills were built on the ramparts of this canal, and a wooden palisade, closed at night, was built around the IJ harbour. Five gates opening onto the roads to Weesp, Muiden, Utrecht, Leiden and Haarlem were built in the walls.

Regulations prescribed what sort of factories could be allowed within the walls. Outside there was a strange medley of little workshops, poor housing and taverns, especially along the Amstel, Boerenwetering and Over-toom. The town expansion plan of 1613 (which was more or less implemented by 1662) was so lavish that there was room inside the city walls for recreation areas like the Plantage, a popular space for taverns and summer cottages.

Zuiderkerk (South Church), the first Protestant church of Amsterdam, was built between 1603 and 1611 by the architect Hendrick de Keyser. It is a fine example of Dutch Renaissance with sandstone columns and richly ornamented facades, now restored and used as a social . and cultural centre for the neighbourhood. The various denominations all built important churches: the Roman Catholic hiding church Ons' Lieve Heer op Zolder (Our Dear Lord on the Loft, 1662-3), the Mennonite hiding church Het Lam (The Lamb, 1607) and the Oude Lutherse Kerk (Old Lutheran Church, 1633). The Portuguese Synagogue, built in 1671-1675 and designed by Elias Bouman, stands in a courtyard. Stalpaert's I7th century Grote Sjoel (Great Synagogue) and Maybaum's 18th century Meije Sjoel (New Synagogue) form a single building.

The city's visual character stems from its administrative and commercial buildings, from which an idea of the city's commercial and industrial activities can be had. The Royal Palace on Dam Square was originally built as a town hall (1648-62). The former St Anthony's Gate (1488) was converted into the Waag (Weighbridge House, 1617-18), where a number of gilds had rooms on the upper storey. The characteristic De Geyer (Corn Mill) dates from the same period, and so does the Munttoren (Mint Tower). The Harbour Office used to be the Schreierstoren, a rampart tower from the later Middle Ages. The Trip family's Trippenhuis is a characteristic building with chimneys in the form of barrels, to recall the guns manufactured in the Trip foundries.

Houses along the canals in the 18th century were mostly built in the Louis XIV, XV and XVI styles. All the bridges were built in the lyth and 18th centuries, either with stone arches or simply on wooden piles. Where it became necessary drawbridges were also built of which the Magere Bridge crossing the Amstel and Sloterdijk bridge on Prinsen Island are the most beau­tiful. In the igth century numerous arched bridges were lowered and transformed into girder bridges. (Later, with the exception of two, the igth c. bridges were removed.)

The 17th century was a flourishing period in the architecture of Amsterdam. It was then that the foun­dation stone of the New Town Hall and of the Bourse were laid, and churches, towers and numerous welfare institutions were built. The architect Hendrick de Keyser designed the Westerkerk, the Zuiderkerk, and perhaps the Noorderkerk too. He also designed the_Bourse, the Munttoren, the Montelbaanstoren and the Haring-pakkerstoren. The architect of the New Town Hall was Jacob van Campen, assisted by Daniel Stalpaert.

In the mid-17th century the Palladian style appeared, the most mature examples of which are the plain sand­stone facades, ornamented by Dutch Renaissance pilasters, of Philips Vingsboons. Later numerous Neo-classical buildings such as the City Hall were built in this style. But the roads serving these new large edifices remained uncompleted as the development of Amsterdam slowed down in the 18th century and were only finished in the mid-19th century.

Administrative changes followed the periods of econ­omic activity. In the 16th century, a single fabriekmeester was in charge of the execution of public works with timmermeester and stadsmetselaar (town bricklayer) as his subordinates. After 1501 building inspection was passed to the rooimeesters (surveyors). The fabriek­meester had to account for his expenses to the treasurers. After the end of the 16th century, a clear distinction was made between the administrative duties of the fabriek­meester and the technical duties of the stadsmeester-timmerman (master architect), stadsmeestermetselaar (master bricklayer), and stadsmeestersteenhouwer (master stone mason). From 1633 the treasurers directly super­vised public works, and thus the town masters, whose number was increased again (geometer, superintendent of digging and earthworks, water, locks, and so on). In 1746 all the above-mentioned officials were subor­dinated to one Directeur-Generaal van Stadswerken en Gebouwen (Director-General of City Works and Buildings). From 1777 three directors were appointed, each with his own department, including one for archi-tectura civilis, the city's buildings. In 1809, a Commissaris over de Publieke Werken (Commissioner of Public Works) was appointed. The number of the departments and directors changed several times. From 1820 to 1850 two departments existed: the director of the Stads-fabriekambt (City Building Office) and the director of the City Water Works. After several reorganizations, the activities of the stadsarchitect, the stadsingenieur and the Commissioner of the Public Works were merged into the Dienst der Publieke Werken (Public Works Service), under the control of the Alderman for Public Works. As parts of this Service grew the Architect's Office and the Engineer's Office.

The Batavian Revolution brought a change in the political structure of the state. After the entry of the French army, the pro-Orange government resigned. In 1813 the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established after the flight of the French. In the mid-19th century Amsterdam went through a crisis due to a recession that affected the port, trade and industry. The problems of urbanization were also multiplying. Growing immigration from the country to the city caused a lack of housing, and people sometimes even lived in cellars. The silting up of the Zuiderzee caused pollution of the canals.

The city corporation was unable to develop a plan to compare with the 17th century city. Slowly the city even began to sell the land that it did possess. The 1866 design of the city engineer Van Niftrik for a new girdle of residential and industrial districts around the 17th century city, with many parks and wide streets, was rejected.

Extension and enlargement of the city fell into the hands of private individuals, who sought the cheaper solution of following existing patterns and adding one street after another. That was the way in which igth century districts like De Pijp in the south, Dapperbuurt in the east, and Staatsliedenbuurt and Kinkerbuurt in the west were developed. Although the streets were laid out according to plans provided by the city, the auth­orities were unable to ensure housing standards, and maintenance of the new buildings was neglected for lack of money. Under the pretext of modernization numerous 17th century monuments, gates and towers were demolished. In the 20th century rehabilitation of these 19th century districts became an urgent task.

Gradually the city authorities became better able to improve conditions for economic development and allow standards of public hygiene to improve.

First the harbour was provided with a better entrance when the Groot Noordhollands Kanaal (Great North Holland Canal, 1819-24) was dug from Den Helder to Amsterdam, and two new harbours, Oosterdok (1832) and Westerdok (1834), were built. However, the length of the Groot Noordhollands Canal prevented it from being a success, and only when the Noordzeekanal (North Sea Canal) from IJmuiden to Amsterdam opened in 1876 was the desired result fully achieved. In 1871 plans were put forward for ensuring the circulation of the water hi the city's canals. The most important step towards higher standards of hygiene was the opening in 1851 of the central waterworks. The gas, electricity and transport networks were developed. Each had originally been in private hands, but later the city authorities took them over, leading to the foundation of the Gas en Elec-triciteitsbedrijf (Gas and Electricity Service), Gemeente-waterleidingen (City Waterworks), and Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (City Transport Service).

From 1874 the City Council gave financial support to housing construction. The Housing Act of 1901 helped improve housing conditions by giving local authorities greater powers to regulate house-building and also to build cheaper housing themselves. The Act also gave local authorities the power to declare housing unfit for habitation and required the authorities in all towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants to prepare ten-year development plans. An indirect result of the Housing Act was H. P. Berlage's plans for the enlargement of South Amsterdam (1917). In 1915 the City Council elaborated its own housing construction plan.

The city raised buildings of central importance: the Central Station (P. J. H. Cuypers and A. L. van Gendt, 1879-89); the Rijksmuseum (P. J. H. Cuypers, 1885); the Stedelijk Museum (A. W. Weissman, 1892-5) inspired by the Dutch and French Renaissance architecture of the 17th century. The Concertgebouw (A. L. van Gendt, 1883-6) was reminiscent of contemporary Viennese architecture.

As in the other European countries in the 19th century, the Neoclassical, Neogothic, and later Jugendstil (art nouveau) became dominant in Amsterdam. The squares and parks of Amsterdam were mainly laid out in the igth century. Dam Square is the oldest and best-known square in Amsterdam, near the dam across the River Amstel. At the beginning of the 20th century it was decided to give the square a more grandiose air; several older buildings were demolished and office buildings and department stores put up in their stead. The square gained a more monumental air but also emptied, since many pubs and small shops disappeared. Of the other squares, the Leidseplein, Wecsperplcin and Haar-lemmerpleinwere old stage-coach stations, the Rembrandt plein was originally the buttermarket. The first gradually developed into an amusement centre. The Waterlooplein came into being in 1882 when the Leprozengracht and Houtgracht were filled in. Till 1977 a famous flea market was held there until it had to make way for the future building of the city hall, to the designs of the Viennese architect Holzbauer.

The Museumplein, originally a vacant area between the Rijksmuseum and the Concertgebouw, was created in the 19th century and received its present form in 1952.

In the first half of the 19th century, the stadsrooimces-ters were in charge of inspecting building and demolition work by private builders. In 1858 the bouwopzichters (building superintendents) took their place. In 1901 a special City Building and Housing Inspectorate was set up. The Inspectorate, until 1915, also supervised the housing associations, the oldest of which dated from 1852.

To prepare extension plans for the city, the public works department set up a city development department in 1928 with the task of designing new extensions of the city. Basis for Amsterdam's expansion was provided by the Algemeen Uitbreidingsplan (General Extension Plan) of 1934.

In the 20th century the old centre ha changed both in outward appearance and function. Living and working, which existed side by side in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, have become separated by increasing distances. The residential houses along the canals were transformed into offices, while the population living in the narrow streets between the canals and in the older residential areas like the Jewish Quarter and the East and West Islands decreased. In 1928 a Voorlopige Monumentlijst (Register of Monuments) was introduced and symbolized a different, more positive appraisal of the old city. But it was only a schedule - owners were under no obligation to apply for planning permission from the city before pulling a historic monument or building down. The situation changed only after the bombing of Rotterdam in 1940. Thereafter scheduled historic monuments and buildings, and even their entire environment, enjoyed state protection. Some parts of Amsterdam were sched­uled as Beschermd Stadsgezicht (Protected City Area). Seven thousand dwelling houses and 200 public buildings were scheduled in the Monumentenlijst van Amsterdam (List of Amsterdam Monuments), to which have now been added the most important buildings of the I9th and 20th centuries.

Since 1953 the independent City Bureau Monumen-tenzorg (Office of Monument Protection) has been in operation, with its own budget for restoration work. A third of Amsterdam's monuments have been restored. In 1969 Parliament passed a Monuments Act. Neverthe­less, between 1945 and 1970, the pattern of some streets in the eastern part of the city, like Weesperstraat and Jodenbreestraat, were altered to improve traffic flow. The preparations for the building of the new City Hall at Waterlooplein and the construction of the first underground railway led to many streets being pulled down. Several hundred houses were demolished to make way for a new cross-town highway, the Haarlemmer Houttuinen, but it was decided to modify the project after the climate of public opinion changed. The loss of so many buildings in the old quarters since 1970 has brought a greater emphasis on the protection of architec­tural monuments; it has been decided to build narrower streets and to restore many houses. It has also been decided to abandon plans for a complete underground railway system, since it would have involved too much demolition.

The small scale of the inner city cannot handle large volumes of traffic, which has led some industrial and commercial concerns to move to the new southern and western parts of the city, nearer to the highway that encircles the city. A number of separated traffic-free tram-lanes have been made in the city.

Several associations have been founded for the preservation of monuments, and the restoration of old housing has gathered momentum since 1950.

Athens

Athens, the capital of Greece, lies at latitude 37⁰58^/ north and longitude 23⁰43^/ east, across a plain starting about 6 km. from the sea, at a height of 100 m. above sea level.

The city is surrounded on three sides by mountains and opens towards the sea only on the western side. The surrounding mountains are Parnes( 1,440 m.), Pentelicon (1,108 m.), Hymettos (1,026 m.) and Aigaleos (476 m.), with four passes giving access to the rest of Greece.

The present area of Greater Athens is 433 sq.km. with a population of about 2,540,000, which is about 38% of the population of Greece. Greater Athens belongs to the Nomos of Attica and consists of 99 demes (munici­palities) and communities.

The green belts of Greater Athens now cover only 1.8% of the total area. Most of the mountains are barren rock with no vegetation. The water output of the small rivers known since ancient times (the Kephissos and the Ilissos) is today insignificant; water supplies come primarily from the reservoire created by the Marathon Dam and from Lake Hyliki and, in the near future, will also be supplied from the Mornos River.

The earliest signs of human habitation on the site of the present city date back to around 4000 BC, the late Neolithic Age.

The ancient nucleus of the city, the fortified dtadel on the Acropolis, later known as the Upper Town, is still the symbol of Athens. Little is known about the extent and layout of the settlements de­veloped around it in the Neolithic Age. Apparently the inhabitants engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, manufacture of pottery and trade. Traces of Neolithic settlements have also been found in the area which later became the site of Plato's Academy, on Strephi Hill and in the Olympieion region. There are also traces of 30 Neolithic settlements all around Attica (Nea Makri, Palaia Kokkinia and others).

In the Early Bronze Age (also known as the Early Helladic period, 2600-2000 BC) the population of Athens increased steadily and there is evidence of strong influence from the Cyclades.

In the Middle Bronze Age (the Middle Helladic period, 2000-1600 BC) the area of the city grew con­tinuously. Traces of dwellings have been found on and around the Acropolis, on the hill of the Areopagus, and at the sites later occupied by the Ancient Agora, the Kerameikos and the Olympieion area.

Several important routes developed in Athens itself. One of them led from the area of the Agora, the later civic center, to the site which later became Plato's Academy. A second route, the ancestor of the later Panathenaic Way, connected the southern part of the later Agora with the approach to the Acropolis, while another road branched off towards the south slope of the Acropolis. Other roads along hilltops and river valleys were destined to link Athens with the surrounding settlements of Attica. Since the roads followed the contours of the terrain, they remained essentially unchanged during the centuries.

Athens' importance grew in the Late Bronze Age (Late Helladic or Mycenaean Age, around 1600-1100 BC). The Mycenaean fortification wall on the Acropolis, 4-6 m. wide, the remarkable Mycenaean Spring Stairway in the Acropolis' North Slope and a second outer forti­fication wall protecting the western approach to the Acropolis were built between 1240 and 1200 BC. The fortification walls together and separately were called the Pelargikon. In the i3th century BC Athens was surely the centre of a Mycenaean-type kingdom. Judging by the tholos tombs excavated at Thorikos, Spata,

Marathon and Achamai, it may be assumed that the territory of Atdca comprised several kingdoms. In the Mycenaean period the royal palace of Athens and houses were built on the Acropolis.

The area occupied by Athens expanded during the last phase of the Mycenaean period. Settlement continued on the site of the Olympieion and new residential districts developed to the south, at the end of present-day Dimitrakopoulou St. The unification of Attica into a single homogeneous state was ascribed to Theseus in the mythical tradition. This probably happened at the end of the 8th century BC. Even so, it is thought that in the 13th century BC the inhabited area (the Acropolis and surroundings) already amounted to about 90,000 square metres. At this time there were about seventy settlements throughout Attica. In all probability, the endeavours to centralize had led to wars and Athenian myths preserve numerous instances of conflicts. However, the Athenians attributed the unification of the scattered settlements to their favourite hero, Theseus, and cel­ebrated the event with the Synoikia festival and the Panathenaic festival. According to legend, Athene or Kranaa or Kekropia, the later city of Athens, was the most important of the twelve small Attic states. The town was named Athinai (Athens) in the plural after the merger of the different kingdoms. Today the city still goes by the ancient name.

During the Mycenaean period the burial ground of the inhabitants of the Acropolis was on the north-eastern dope of the hill named Areopagus. Material excavated from the rich chamber tombs is exhibited in the Agora Museum. There were other burial grounds at the northern foot of Philopappos Hill, south of the Acropolis and along still surviving roads leading to the sea.

The most important remains of the Mycenaean period are on the Acropolis. The huge dimensions of the forti­fications made them appear impregnable and the ancient Athenians later considered them to be the work of the superhuman Cyclops. Only small sections of the Cyclo­pean wall so much respected by the inhabitants of the city are extant, the most spectacular being east of the temple of Nike, from the south wing of the Propylaea to the Acropolis wall built in classical times.

After Theseus had united the city, the Acropolis became known as the polls, the Greek equivalent of the word city, while another Greek word: asty, was used to denote the Agora and other parts of the lower town.

At the very end of the Mycenaean period (the turn of the 12th-11th centuries BC), a large burial ground devel­oped in the Eridanos river valley in north-west Athens in what is now the Kerameikos Excavations. The Sub-Mycenaean, Protogeometric and Geometric finds from graves excavated here represent the most important sources for the history of the city between the end of the Bronze Age and the archaic period (around 1100-700 BC). Attica was spared the devastations of the socalled Doric migration. The population of the city increased rapidly and the unification of the Attic settle­ments under the leadership of Athens at the end of the 8th century BC greatly contributed towards this development.

As an institution, the kingdom showed a marked decline. The king was divested of most of his powers which were transferred to nine regents (archons). The Acropolis lost its significance as a royal seat. The main organ of the aristocratic government was the Areios Pagos, a council of nobles composed of archons who had served their terms of office. The Council of the Areopagus met on the barren rocks of Ares' Hill, beside the Acro­polis.

During the 11th-8th centuries BC the foundations were laid for prosperous growth and Athens flourished economically, politically and artistically. Athenian cul­tural supremacy in Greece is exemplified by its superb Proto-Geometric and Geometric pottery.

Excavations at the Kerameikos, at the ancient Agora and in other parts of Attica have yielded rich harvests of Protogeometric and Geometric artifacts, almost without exception found in graves. Consequently, the methods and rites of burial at that time are much better known to us than, for example, architecture and sanc­tuaries and daily life.

During the 8th century BC a temple to the goddess Athena Polias was built on the Acropolis. Two stone bases for wooden columns, still visible inside the foun­dations of the Old Temple of Athena, belonged to the 8th century temple. The territory south of the Acropolis as far as the Olympieion was the nucleus of contemporary Athens. The building materials used had a very short life. Metals were scarcely available, save for iron, which was used primarily for weapons.

During this period Athens became the religious and administrative centre of Attica.

Comparatively little information is available on the settlement pattern in Athens during the Geometric period. It may be assumed that the administrative centre was north of the Acropolis at the Agora of Theseus. Though the palace still stood - we have no information about its destruction - the Acropolis was gradually becoming a religious rather than a secular centre. Historical sources point to the Olympieion area as another religious centre. The remains of a Late Geometric building (Sacred House) with a highly intricate ground-plan were found in the Academy area. An oval enclosure which dates from the 9th century BC was found on the north slope of the Areopagus. We know from written sources that in the 8th century BC high-ranking families moved from the country into the city, choosing the sorroundings of Pnyx Hill and nearby Melite as a place to live, thereby beginning the development of a residential area in the city.

During this period the city's water supply sdll came from springs on the slopes of the Acropolis or from wells. The discovery near Syntagma Square of a rock-cut aqueduct and a well point to the square having been an open-air sanctuary of some kind. Later the Lyceum and the Garden of Theophrastos may have occupied the site. The Dissos and Eridanos rivers also supplied water.

More detail is known about the Athenian constitution and political history from the beginning of the yth cen­tury BC. The first list giving the names of the annually elected archons dates from 682 BC.

The nine archons were the basileus (matters of religion), the polemarch (military leader), the eponymos (after whom the year was named) and six thesmothetai (legislators). The Areopagus (Council of Nobles) was primarily a law court but they also supervised the archons' exercise of executive power and monitored the application of the laws.

The development of Athens as a commercial and industrial force during the yth century BC brought with it political conflicts and the old social system was thrown out of balance. The artisans and peasantry attempted to secure political rights from the nobles, who had earlier taken over the royal powers and divided the hereditary offices amongst themselves. The situation was worsened by a severe plague.

A nobleman called Kylon tried to take advantage of this popular dissatisfaction. With his adherents he oc­cupied the Acropolis in 636 BC but failed to gain sufficient support from the people to succeed in a coup d'etat. However, the class struggle continued. One basic popular demand was for codification of the law, and this was done by Dracon in 624 BC on the com­mission of the nobles. However, the severity of the Draconian Code left everyone still unsatisfied. In 594 BC Sokm was elected archon and given special powers to amend the form of government. A major grievance had been that a creditor might sell his debtor into slavery if he defaulted. Solon's first measure was to cancel all debts where this had been made and to forbid enslavement for debt. He promulgated a new constitution which consolidated the newly arisen class system called the Timocracy, based upon property distinctions and income. There were four classes: the Pentakosiomedimnoi (those with an income equivalent to 500 medimnoi of grain), the Hippeis (knights with an income of 300 medimnoi), the Zeugitai (yeomen, owners of a pair of oxen) and the Thetes. He limited the Council of the Areopagus to judicial matters and instituted a Council of Four Hundred (Boule) to take over its deliberative functions and ensure continuity of government. However, election to archonship was still restricted to the highest class - the Pentakosiomedimnoi - although an archon no longer needed to be of noble birth. Solon gave teeth to the Assembly (ekklesia) which became the supreme controller of public affairs and to which the Thetes were also admitted. To ensure impartial administration of justice, tribunals (heliaia) were set up with 5,000 full and 1,000 supplementary members. The Thetes were also admitted to these, while junior public office could be held by the Zeugitai. The Thetes were exempted from taxes and public works were financed entirely from levies on the richest two classes.

Solon's epoch saw the first attempt at systematic town-planning in the area north-west of the Acropolis.. The main square was transferred to the north of the Areopagus and the outlines of the Solonian Agora began to take shape. The oldest Council House (Bouleuterion) was built in Solon's time.

Several private houses were pulled down in the area allocated for the Agora and burials were forbidden there.

During the early decades of the 6th century, after the implementation of Solon's reforms, three political groups developed in Athens: the old landowners of the plains (pediakoi); the coastal inhabitants (paralioi) including the merchants and mariners; and the inhabit­ants of the surrounding hills (diakrioi), the poor people of the Attic mountains, mostly wood-cutters, charcoal burners and cattle-breeders. The latter group was headed by Peisistratos, who in 561 BC seized the Acropolis and established autocratic rule (tyrannis) over Athens. He made it his concern to remedy the wrongs of the poor; he had roads built to provide easy access to the administrative centre of the city and granted credits to the farmers. He also introduced income tax, set pu mobile courts to administer justice in the villages, gave active support to trade and the crafts, and promoted the development of shipping, so that Athens turned into a major economic and cultural centre during his time.

Under Peisistratos the Athenians had their first coins minted when the Corinthian monetary system was founded in 575 BC.

It is believed that a shrine to Athena Nike was built just outside the Acropolis gates in 566 BC. Between 560-550 BC a large Doric temple dedicated to Athena was built on the Acropolis, perhaps on the site later occupied by the Parthenon. At around 566 BC the Greater Panathenaia, celebrated every four years, became the main festival of Athens for a thousand years.

A building resembling a house, erected in the south-west corner of the Agora near the Council House in the mid-6th century BC, on the site later used for the Tholos, may have been the residence of Peisistratos himself- The temple of Apollo Patroos on the west side of the Agora was also built around the middle of the 6th century BC. Another important building was the office of the basileus. the archon whose task was to direct the state religious ceremonies and preside over certain trials. The Stoa Basileios, erected at the end of the archaic period, was also the office where the ancient laws of Athens were preserved and where the Nine Archons took the oath to observe them. The sons of Peisistratos began the building of a huge temple to Olympian Zeus which was not completed until the 2nd century AD. The Old Temple of Athena was built on the Acropolis, south of the Erechtheion, between 525 and 520 BC. Only the foundations are still in place but enough of the architec­ture and sculpture has been found to permit an accurate reconstruction.

Around 520 BC the South-east Fountain House in the Agora and the Altar of The Twelve Gods were completed.

At this time Athens had three gymnasia: the gymna­sium at the Academy; the Lykeion (Lyceum) named after Apollo Lykios; the Kynosarges gymnasium with a sanctuary of Herakles near the present-day church of St Panteleimon.

We know little about how Athens was laid out as a city at that time. Traces of private houses have been found south-west of the Agora by the modern road Leophoros Apostolou Pavlou. These finds clearly show that the streets were irregular and unauthorized building often took place as the strict building regulations issued later by Hippias confirm. The Peisistratid aqueduct served the Athenians for several hundred years. The residential area soon spread beyond the city walls, where the richer. citizens built their homes.

The tyranny took a turn for the worse under the sons of Peisistratos. One of them, Hipparchos, was murdered at the Panathenaic festival of 514 BC, which spurred the other son, Hippias, to still greater despotism. The fight for power ended with victory for the people of Athens who in 510 BC drove Hippias into exile; he went to the court of the king of Persia.

With Kleisthenes' rise to power in 508 BC Athens entered upon a period of democracy: his constitution put an end to the rule of the aristocracy. Most of the civic buildings needed for the legislative and administrative functions of the democracy were put up in the Agora. The Assembly met on nearby Pnyx Hill.

The city flourished, trade and the crafts developed and there were plenty of opportunities open both to Athenians and immigrants. However, the new democracy soon had to fight for survival against the despotic eastern empire of Persia.

During the Persian Wars Athens leading statesman was Themistocles, who put comprehensive military plans into action, gave Athens a strong fleet and developed the harbour of the Piraeus. When the Persians advanced in 480 BC he ordered the evacuation of the dty. The Persians entered Athens and devastated the Acropolis. After their defeat at Salamis in 479 BC a new dty wall was built. Piraeus and its harbour were also fortified. The debris of private houses and public buildings and even tombstones were used as building material. Besides providing for the defence of Athens, the idea was to ensure uninterrupted communication between Athens and Piraeus in case of war, and so the Long Walls - the North Long Wall and the Phaleron Wall - were started to provide safe access to the port of Athens. However, the implementation of the project extended well into the second and even into the third quarter of the 5th century BC. It is estimated that the walls around Athens and Piraeus endosed an area of 15 million square metres.

While Themistocles gave top priority to fortifying the dty, Kimon, the leading statesman of the second quarter of the century, concentrated on reconstruction. He built the Tholos and Stoa Poikile in the Agora and also the Theseion, the shrine containing the bones of Theseus.

After Kimon's expulsion from Athens in 462 BC, the administration of the dty passed into the hands of Pericles. Under his government democracy in Athens reached the peak of its development. In 448 BC Pericles set about his main building project on the Acropolis.

The main gateway of the dtadel, the Old Propylon, may have been built around 500 BC; it was replaced by the Periclean Propylaia built in 432- 427 BC.

The Older Parthenon had begun after 490 BC and was destroyed by the Persians while it was under con­struction. In 448-432 BC it was replaced by the new Parthenon, a votive temple dedicated to Athena Polias, the architectural culmination of the Doric style. The Erechtheion, an Ionic temple with the old cult statue of Athena Polias, was built after the death of Pericles. The graceful Ionic temple of Athena Nike was the last building erected on the Acropolis in the 5th century BC. At the same time important building operations were in progress within and outside Athens.

In the age of Pericles Athens was the scene of bustling artistic activity. Outstanding personalities like Pheidias, Agorakritos, Kallimachos, Iktinos, Thukydides, Anaxa-goras, Kallikrates, Mnesicles and Hippodamos lived and worked in the city.

The Acropolis was decorated with votive statues and steles. New public buildings were erected in the Agora. The surroundings of the Acropolis and the Agora were so densely populated that dwelling houses occupied almost all the area enclosed by the city wall. Outside the dty wall every road radiating out of Athens was flanked by grave monuments; the State Burial Ground was in the Kerameikos. A meeting-place for the Assembly was laid out on Pnyx Hill at the beginning of the 5th century BC. Towards the end of the 5th century BC Athens had a population of about 36,000 living in some 6,000 private houses; the area within the city wall amounted to 2.15 sq.km. and there must have been but little open space within this area.

In 431 BC the Peloponnesian War broke out. It con­sumed the power reserves of the opposing sides and in the Battle of Aigospotamoi, 404 BC, the Athenian fleet suffered a crushing defeat. The victorious Spartans and their allies destroyed the walls of Athens and Piraeus, seized all but ten ships of the fleet and put the harbour out of use by filling it up with earth.

In 394 BC, with Persian aid, the general Konon destroyed the Spartan fleet and rebuilt the fortification walls of Athens and Piraeus. Building operations were restarted in the Agora. The Panathenaic Stadium was built on the left bank of the Hisses around 330 BC. The stone Theatre ofDionysos was erected on the south slope of the Acropolis about the same time. Plato's Academy was founded in the sacred grove of the Hero Akademos.

During the second half of the 4th century BC the city walls were restored and fortified on several occasions. An outer defence wall known as the proteichisma and a dry moat strengthened the defences of the city wall. At the end of the 4th century BC the city wall and the Long Walls were rebuilt; the Dipylon Gate, the largest gate in Greece, was completely reconstructed. The line of the city wall was shortened by means of a cross-wall, the diateichisma, running from the Hill of the Nymphs, along the ridge of the Pnyx, to the top of Philopappos Hill.

In the 4th century BC internal strife sapped the strength of the city-state. In the second half of the century King Philip II of Macedonia pushed himself into the league of the Greek city-states and came into conflict with Athens. In the Battle of Chaironeia in 338 BC Philip defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes. After the Lamian War of 322 BC the Macedonians placed a garrison in Athens.

Between 317 and 307 BC the philosopher Demetrios ofPhaleron ruled the city with the support of the Mace­donians and the economic situation of Athens improved temporarily. Drama, philosophy, painting and sculpture flourished again.

Athens then entered into an alliance with Sparta and Egypt against Macedonian rule. As a result of the Chremonidean War (267-261 BC) the city was again garrisoned by the Macedonians. The archons were replaced by a Macedonian governor known as the epistate. It was not until 229 BC that the Athenians succeeded in regaining their independence with the aid of an alliance with Achaia.

The expansion of the Roman empire began in the 2nd century BC. At this time Athens was going through a period of economic recession, although it was still the centre of scholarship and its schools were attended by many foreigners including Romans. New public buildings and temples were erected.

On the Acropolis the votive offerings of the kings of Pergamon decorated the south wall. The most famous of them represented the victory over the Celtic Galatians.

Attalos II, king of Pergamon, donated a large stoa built on the east side of the Agora. The Middle Stoa, East Stoa and South Stoa II closing off the south side of the Agora also date from this period, as does the Metroon, the sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods, and the Stoa of Eumenes of Pergamon on the southern, slope of the Acropolis.

The ruins that survive are scarcely sufficient to give even an approximate idea of the ancient city nor does Pausanias' Periegesis (itinerary) provide a full picture. The pre-Roman endeavours of the Athenians to fortify their city proved futile: they were unable to protect it from invaders.

Under Roman rule Athens at first enjoyed many privi­leges. However, in the ist century BC the situation changed -when in 87 BC the sophist Athenion took power with the aid of Archelaos, the commander under King Mithradates IV of Pontos, and rose up against the Roman general Sulla who besieged and occupied Athens in 86 BC. He gave his soldiers leave to plun­der the city and had a section of the city walls pulled down. Athens remained unfortified for the next three hundred years.

At around 15 BC a concert hall, the Odeion of Agrippa, was built in the middle of the Agora. The earlier Odeion of Pericles, which had been destroyed by Sulla, was also reconstructed. The temple of Rome and Augustus was erected east of the Erechtheion and the Roman Agora east of the Agora of classical times. Next to it stood the Horologion of Andronikos, commonly known as the Tower of the Winds after the reliefs on each of its eight sides.

It was probably in the ist century AD that the temple of Ares, originally built on an unknown site in the 5th century BC, was moved to the classical Agora. The first monumental stairway leading up to the Acropolis dates from about the same time. South-east of the Tower of the Winds stood the colonnaded building dedicated to Athena Archegetis and Augustus.

The philhellene emperor Hadrian visited Athens in the 2nd century AD. This was to become a period of rebirth for Athens. New buildings sprang up, the city acquired an aqueduct named after Hadrian, and a whole new and prosperous'suburb stretching eastwards, dotted with fine new villas. It became known as Hadrianopolis, the city of Hadrian. Hadrian's arch separated the old city from the new. Hadrian also built the Pantheon, the library that bears his name and a basilica situated east of the Roman Agora .which was, perhaps, the temple of Hera and Zeus Panhellenios.

Another benefactor of the city in the 2nd century BC was Herodes Atdcus whose generosity is still visible in buildings like the Odeion on the south slope of the Acropolis.

On the ridge of Ardettos, Herodes Atdcus built a temple to Tyche above the Panathenaic Stadium for which he provided marble seating arrangements, and in front of the Stadium he had an arched bridge built over the Ilissos.

In the mid-3rd century AD the emperor Valerian attempted to prepare Athens for attacks from the Goths by rebuilding the old Themistoclean city wall with an eastward extension around Hadrianopolis. A supply of fresh water for the Acropolis was assured by making the Klepsydra spring accessible solely via a tunnel from the Agrippa Monument terrace which was now fortified by walls and a gate known as the Beuld Gate.

The walls did not stop the Heruli from sacking Athens in 267 AD. The city was burnt down and numerous buildings completely destroyed. The Acropolis, however, was not taken by the barbarians. Soon after the departure of the barbarians, the Athenians retracted their line of defence and withdrew behind a new city wall, the Post-Herulian Wall, which enclosed only the Acropolis slopes, perhaps only the north slope. In order to build this wall fast, the Athenians tore down and re-used the ma­terial of their public buildings, temples, sculpture and inscriptions.

Few significant edifices were built in the later part of antiquity. One was a large gymnasium completed around 425 AD occupying the site of the classical Agora and re-using the Tritons and Giants from the Odeion of Agrippa, the Gymnasium of the Giants. South of the y- Stoa of Attalos a water mill was built c. 450 AD. A large gymnasium was built in the Academy area. The north room of the Metroon was, possibly, a synagogue at that time. From the 3rd century onward renowned Christian philosophers also came to teach in Athens, but their schools were outside Athens at places like Hymettos, where hermitages and monasteries were built later on.

The last outstanding pagan philosopher of the 5th century AD was Proklos who taught in a school on the south slope of the Acropolis.

In 529 AD Justinian closed the schools of pagan philosophy including Plato's Academy. Fearing barbarian invasions, he strengthened the defences of his empire, including the walls of Athens.

Numerous temples and monuments of ancient times were converted into Christian churches, perhaps starting in the 6th century, for example, the Parthenon, the

Erechthdon, the Hephaistcion; the Tower of the Winds was used as a baptistry and several buildings in the Asklepieion were used for a basilica.

From the 7th to the 9th century, referred to as the Dark Ages, Athens declined, but recovered again in the loth to 12th centuries, known in Byzantine art as the Athenian period. A new wave of building activity occurred and a complete Byzantine suburb has been unearthed. Surviving monuments of this period include churches such as Kapnikarea, the Panagia Gorgoepekoos (the Little Metropolis), Haghioi Theodoroi, Soteira Lykode-mou (Russian Church), Haghioi Apostoloi and several monasteries outside of Athens. Two schools functioned on Hymettos; they were later turned into monasteries.

In 1040 Attica was devastated by the Normans and in 1154-82 by the Saracens. The city is described by various medieval travellers, such as the Arab geographer Idrisi, Benjamin of Tudela, and the metropolitans Michael Akominatos and Michael Psellos. After the capture of Constantinople in 1204, the whole Byzantine empire disintegrated into small states, most of which came under the control of the crusaders.

The medieval wall around the Acropolis slopes was named the Rizokastron, but nowadays the name serves to designate only the quarter lying north of the Acropolis. The old Acropolis circuit wall and the Post-Herulian Wall were still in use.

The Frankish occupation which began in 1205 was the cause of general decline. The new rulers treated the Greek population with ruthlessness or indifference. French was introduced as the official language and the Athenians were excluded from all public office.

Building on the Acropolis caused great damage to ancient monuments especially to the Propylaia which the reigning dukes turned into their residence; two churches were built, one in the southern wing of the Propylaia, the other in the centre of the building. The Parthenon became a Catholic church. The so-called Frankish Tower was built in the south-western wing of the Propylaia and the Belvedere at the east wall. It is thought that the in­habited area of the city amounted to about 400,000 square metres and did not extend beyond the Post-Heru­lian Wall; a traveller who visited Athens in 1395 asserts that there were only about 100 dwellings.

Decline and depopulation continued throughout the Frankish occupation, but a radical change came in 1456 with the advent of the Turks. The privileges granted by the Sultan allowed the city to flourish again. Despite the frequent famines, epidemics and other vicissitudes, the population preserved its vitality and began to grow, partly through immigration of Turks and Albanians. The Albanians settled mainly in the Plaka district until the middle of the 16th century.

In the course of time four distinct social classes came into being: the wealthy lords (archons), the well-to-do fanners, the merchants and the simple peasants. In 1464, during the Turkish-Venetian War (1463-1475) the Venetian Vittorio Capello led a raid against Athens. Although he did not succeed in capturing the Acropolis, he methodically devastated and plundered the city.

The Acropolis became the residence of high-ranking Turkish officials and the quarters of the garrison. The area between the buildings gradually filled up with small houses belonging to Turkish families and members of the garrison. No Greek was allowed to enter the area sur­rounded by the Rizokastron. The northern section of the wall formed the boundary between the fortified hill and the lower city north of the Acropolis. The southern section was at that time known as the Serpentze. In 1506 new water pipes were installed.

The Greek temples inside the prohibited area fell into ruins. The Propylaia and the Parthenon were severely damaged by explosions in 1645 and 1687. As the Venetian Morosini prepared for the siege of the Acropolis, the Turks demolished the temple of Athena Nike in order to construct the so-called Turkish rampart. The archi­tecture and sculpture from the temple of Nike was recovered and the temple was reconstructed in 1835-6.

The Turks lived on the Acropolis and both inside and outside the Post-Herulian Wall. The Parthenon was transformed into a mosque with the Byzantine bell-tower at the south-western corner serving as a minaret. Four mosques were built in the lower city. As the population increased, more and more houses went up near the Post-Herulian wall.

In the city itself 40 Christian churches, a Cistercian abbey and a Capuchin monastery were erected. In 1671 there were 2,053 houses in Athens which was divided into eight districts; the population was a mixture of Greeks, Turks, Greek-Albanians and some foreigners, amounting to 12,500 in all. In the 17th century the area of the town amounted to 460,000 sq.m.

Athens' last city wall was constructed during the rule of Ali Haseki (1775-1798) as a protection against Albanian raids. It was built partly along the line of the Themistoc-lean Wall but it was much lower and not as thick. Many fragments of ancient monuments went into it. The Haseki Wall, completed in 1778, was 4,300 metres long and enclosed an area of 1,104,000 sq.m. During the last phase of Turkish rule, the situation of the Greek popula­tion improved considerably. At the end of the i8th century Athens had a special atmosphere of its own. Numerous fountains decorated the squares and streets, and ancient monuments stood side by side with public buildings and mosques.

At the beginning of the 19th century the Turkish Sublime Porte granted Lord Elgin permission to remove antiquities from the Acropolis. The Parthenon sculpture

and other rich material he acquired later became part of the famous collection of the Elgin Marbles in the British Museum.

The Acropolis also suffered a great deal during the Greek War of Independence when it was besieged on two occasions (1821-2 and 1826-7). The second time, when the Greeks were the defenders, the besiegers bombarded the Acropolis without any consideration for the heavy damage caused to the ancient monuments.

Greece was proclaimed a free and independent state and Athens a definitively Greek city by the Protocol of London on February 3, 1830. The Turkish garrison, nevertheless, did not leave the Acropolis until March 31, 1833. By virtue of a resolution passed on September 18; 1834. Athens became the capital of Greece. In 1835 the population of the city amounted to about 4,000. The War of Independence had left the majority of the houses in ruins and most roads were still; unfit for traffic.. From the architectural remains of the Turkish rule only one house and two mosques survive today. At the beginning of the Greek War of Independence there were 129 Christian churches in Athens. Of these only 24 survive in their original form. The mosque built inside the Parthenon in 1690, following the explosion of 1687, was pulled down in 1852. The Haseki Wall was demolished in 1875 and the Mendreses, the Theological Academy north of the Tower of the Winds, in 1914.

After Greece had regained her independence, a member of the Bavarian royal house took the throne. In 1834 he commissioned Ludwig Ross to restore the monuments on the Acropolis. Important excavations were carried out between 1885 and 1891.

When Athens was chosen as capital, it was proposed that the ancient monuments on the Acropolis should be pulled down and that the royal palace should be built there, incorporating the Parthenon as a reception hall in a palace courtyard. King Ludwig of Bavaria rejected this plan. His son Otho, the king of Greece, endeavoured to introduce the fashionable Neoclassical style into the new capital. While town plans were being prepared, the roads of present-day Athens were laid out. The Palace was built by von Gartner in 1836; von Weiler was responsible for the Military Hospital (today the Barracks of the Gendarmerie at Makryiannis) in 1837; Christian Hansen built the University in 1839. Greek architects who participated in building up Athens were Stamatios Kleanthes, Lysandros Kaphtandzoglou and Panayotis Kalkos. Some of the outstanding buildings from this period are: the Neoclassical Triad, the marble buildings of the University, the Academy and the National Library on Panepistimiou St., the National Archae­ological Museum, the Polytechnic, the Palace on Irodu Attikou St., the Old Palace, today the Parliament, the Old Parliament (Historical Museum), the Schliemann House (Iliou Mclathron), the Roman-Catholic church, the Eye Hospital.'the'Anglican church of St Paul.

In 1830 Stamatios Kleanthes and Eduard Schaubert prepared the first map of Athens' important monuments of antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times. In 1832 the same architects were commissioned by the Greek government to draw up a development plan for the capital. The Kleanthes-Schaubert plan, which envisaged the development of wider streets, squares and other public areas to allow for excavations, was later modified by Klenze in the spirit of the first Monument Preservation Act, passed in 1834. The new capital centred around the Acropolis and developed north and east into the Anaphio-tika, Plaka and Aerides (Tower of the Winds) quarters.

Many an important event in the modern history of Greece took place in the new capital. On September 3, 1843, General Kallergis led the "constitutionalists" in a revolt which resulted in Greece's first constitution.

In 1852 the city was devastated by an earthquake.

Greece joined the Crimean War on the side of the Russians in 1854, in order to liberate the territories still occupied by the Turks. Upon Turkey's request, French troops landed in Piraeus, where they remained until March 1857; the occupation ended with the outbreak of an epidemic of cholera which wiped out half of the population of Athens and Piraeus. On October 10, 1862, a national revolt caused the expulsion of King Otho.

Between 1831 and 1853 the population of Athens and Piraeus rose from 4,000 to 816,000.

The town development plan of the Stavridis Committee was tabled in 1860. It formed the basis for the develop­ment of the present centre and the broad thoroughfares crossing the city which were built at that time.

Athens was hard hit by the war of 1897 and by the revolt of 1909 which brought Eleutherios Venizelos to power. Venizelos regained possession of Crete and prepared the country for the 1912-3 Balkan War. In 1908 the government commissioned the town planner and architect Ludwig Hoffmann to prepare a general development plan for Athens. The German architect suggested the building of boulevards instead of the earlier radial roads. In 1911 the British architect Thomas Mawson put forward modifications to the plan, mainly concerning the development of the city centre. In 1920 a committee headed by Petros Kalligas recommended further modifications which, however, failed to take into account the complex problems of town planning and urbanization, among them the problem presented by the rapid growth of the population.

Greece took part in the First World War. The Asia Minor campaign (1921-2) ended with a crushing defeat for the Greek troops and the flight of the Greeks from the peninsula. After a series of coups the kingdom was re-established in Greece by a plebiscite in 1923.

In 1922, after the failure of the Asia Minor campaign, the population of the capital increased to 460,000. The random growth of new districts in the capital soon caused serious difficulties. The authorities endeavoured to control building operations with National Building Regulations and the restriction on building heights introduced in 1934.

In 1936, during the rule of King George II, general loannis Metaxas became dictator. On October 28, 1940, the Italians declared war on Greece. The City Council declared the capital an "open city" to save the ancient and Byzantine monuments from destruction. The Greek people successfully resisted the Italian advance until April 6, 1941, when Hitler's Germany joined the Italian side and Athens was occupied by German troops.

When the Italians pulled out of the war in September 1943 and the anti-fascist resistance movement, begun in 1941, grew stronger, the Germans responded with even more brutal reprisals. On October 12, 1944, the Nazi troops withdrew from Athens and soon after a new Greek government was set up in the capital. The country became independent. Athens grew more important both in the life of the country and in international relations. These circumstances were reflected by the rapid devel­opment of the city both in area and architecture, and this again made the excavation of its monuments a desidera­tum of high priority.

After several attempts, the Ministry of Construction completed the general architectural plan of the whole plain of Athens in 1947. In 1954 the Housing Board set up by the Ministry drew up its general plan; in 1962, with the co-operation of the American expert W. Smith, the same Board examined the city's traffic problems and in 1965 it produced a new general plan.

Three departments within the Monument Preservation Board (which functions under the Ministry of Culture and Sciences) are in legal control of preserving finds excavated during construction work in the city: the First Ephorate of Ancient Monuments, the Ephorate of the Acropolis and the Third Ephorate of Ancient Monuments. The Archaeological Act of 1932 is still in force. It amplified an earlier act of 1834 and extended its powers to protect historic monuments to Byzantine material. Since the 1932 Act it has been compulsory to notify the authorities of all finds unearthed during construction work. An Act of 1966 extended these obligations to Neo­classical buildings and also covers certain aspects of environmental protection.

Unfortunately the lack of an effective master plan for the development of Athens hinders the progress of archaeological research and the adaptation of the city to modern requirements. The situation has become particu­larly critical in the centre.

Berlin

This book deals with the capitals of the European countries of today and so this chapter confines itself to a description of Berlin, the Capital of the German Democratic Republic. Berlin lies along the ancient glacial spillway of the River Spree, and after Magdeburg is the second largest inland port. Its average altitude is 36 metres, and its geographical position is latitude 52⁰ 18' north and longitude 13° 15' east. The city his an area of 403 sq.km., and had 3,289,500 inhabitants at the end of 2003-6.5% of the German Democratic Republic.

There is evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. Slavic tribes founded villages here in the 7th century. The history of the twin cities of Berlin and Kölln begins in the early 13th century. Various assumptions have been made about their foundation. The first documentary evidence of the existence of Kölln dates from 1237, while Berlin is first mentioned in a document of 1244. Near the ford over the River Spree, where the Mühldammbrücke now stands, trading centres developed on both sides of the river, and important trade routes met in the two cities. The favour­able position of Kölln and Berlin led to rapid develop­ment, and by the end of the 13th century they were already larger than other cities in the Mark of Branden­burg. The walls of Berlin enclosed 42 ha and of Kölln 23 ha. Leagues of the cities in the Mark were formed on several occasions under the leadership of Berlin, where their meetings were held. In the last quarter of the 13th century the two cities already had as many as five churches. The oldest in Berlin were the Nikolaikirche (St Nicholas's) and Marienkirche (St Mary's) followed by Klosterkirche (Abbey Church) and Heiliggeistkapelle (Chapel of the Holy Spirit). The main church in Kölln was Petrikirche (St Peter's).

In 1307 the cities of Berlin and Kölln merged and built a joint city hall by the Lange Brücke. Originally the alliance was to serve defence purposes, bet it increased Berlin's political influence, and brought economic and cultural development. Its powers included the right to mint coins and decide over life and death. Even the fires of 1376 and 1380 failed to undermine its power, although they all but reduced the building ashes. Berlin was reconstructed using new methods of timber framing, and the first houses of baked brick also appeared among the new building.

For centuries Berlin occupied an area which can be well seen today from the top of the Television Tower on Alexanderplatz. The built-up area extended to the present-day Littenstrae in the north, Alexanderplatz in the east, and Kupfergraben in the south and west, but did not include the marshy area where later the Schloß and Lustgarten - now Marx-Engels-Platz - were built.

The sister cities preserved their independence from the Land's princes until the 15th century. However, when four of the guilds rose against the Council in 1442, the Prince-Elector had to use arms to force ain entry through the city gates. He then split the twin cties up and gave the guilds seats on the Council. From that time onward, the Prince reserved the right to confirm the appointment of magistrates. In 1443 he built a castle on the site of the Hohes Haus in Klosterstraße, in front of the city walls of Kölln, with direct access to the city. The uprising of the citizens of Berlin in 1448, which interrupted the building of the castle, was sup­pressed by a feudal court.

Around 1450 the city had about 6,000 inhabitants. Berlin's population growth was accelerated when the Prince-Elector transferred his seat here, and further areas of the city and its suburbs were built upon. The court nobility had certain building privileges. A large number of new dwelling houses were built in the 15th century after yet another fire had caused considerable damage in 1483. Unbaked brick and timber framing were almost entirely superseded by stone as a building material.

Prosperity in the 16th century was interrupted by the Thirty Years' War. From 1618 to 1648 the population of Berlin decreased from 12,000 to 6,000. Nevertheless, Berlin became the scene of new life: from the 15th century to the end of the 18th century it was the seat first of the Prince-Electors of Brandenburg and later of the Kings of Prussia. The stately Schloß which in its design showed Saxon influence, was built in 1535-71, under the direction of the architect Kaspar Theiss. Later several other groups of buildings rose around it, among them the Apothekenflügel (Pharmacy Wing). During the Second World War the Schloß was badly damaged and in 1950-51 it was demolished.

The mercantile economic and political system designed to serve the purposes of absolutism led to a new phase of development in the life of Berlin-Kölln. Since there were not enough local architects, many were invited from Holland.

The first building regulations were issued on November 30, 1641, and continued at least formally in force until 1853. When they were drafted they constituted a most up-to-date set of statutory provisions. The streets were gradually paved and in 1682 street lighting was intro­duced. To protect the capital of the province from attack, Berlin and Kölln were fortified in 1658, to plans executed under the control of Johann Gregor Memhardt, an engineer of Austrian birth educated in the Netherlands. From him originates the oldest surviving map of the two cities (1650), showing their centres. Most of the for­tifications were pulled down again ten years after their completion.

Between the mid-17th century and the end of the 18th century the Age of Absolutism saw a rapid improvement of the city's appearance. The Prince systematically added new settlements: Friedrichswerder (1662), Dorotheenstadt (1674) and Friedrichstadt (1688). The uniform town houses of Dorotheenstadt and Fried­richstadt, the conversion of the Schloß according to Schlüter's designs into a huge Baroque palace (1698) and the building of the Zeughaus (Arsenal) and the mansions along the Wilhelmstraße, turned Berlin into a European metropolis.

Changes in the methods of town-house building came in the mid-17th century. Detached houses gave way to uniform terraces with the roofs forming a continuous line and transforming the look of the streets.

Following the example of other European courts, the Kings of Prussia—as the Prince-Electors of Brandenburg styled themselves after 1701 - endeavoured to raise grandiose buildings.

Prince Frederick III (King Frederick I) played an important role in the development of Berlin's archi­tecture and town planning. In 1709 the King united the newly formed towns of Friedrichwerder, Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichstadt with Kölln and Berlin into a capital and royal seat which he invested with new urban rights. The population of the united city amounted to 56,000, of which 6,000 were French immigrants, 500 Swiss and 500 originally from the Palatinate. The suburbs on the northern, eastern and southern sides of Berlin were later incorporated into the capital as well.

Berlin architecture from the end of the i7th through the 18th-century showed Italian and French influences. Andreas Schlüter, a man of many talents who was appointed court sculptor in 1664, the Dutch court architect Smid, his successor Arnold Nering, and the Swedish-born court architect (from 1699) Johann Eosander von Göthe all played an important part in the creation of architectural monuments of outstanding historic value. Through the taste and authority of its architects, the court directly influenced private building in the city.

In addition to the extension of the Berlin Schloß and the building of Schloß Monbijou, other castles were built near Berlin. Charlottenburg was started by Nering in 1695 and extended by Eosander von Göthe after 1702; the same architects were responsible for the Castle at Niederschönhausen. Other outstanding buildings of the period are the Marstall (former court stable; 1665-70, M. Smid), the Zeughaus (1695-1706, Nering, Grünberg, Schluter and de Bodt), the Opera (1741-3, Knobelsdorf), Prince Henry's palace, which after 1810 was converted into a university (1748-53, Knobelsdorf and Boumann), the Königliche Bibliothek (1774-80, Fischer von Erlach and G. Ch. Unger), the Brandenburger Tor (Brandenburg Gate; 1788-1794, Langhaus and Schadow). The churches include the Dorotheenstadt Church, Parochialkirche, Sophienjarche, Hedwigkirche, Deutsche Kirche and Französische Kirche. Among the more important palaces built by the government for the nobility were the Palais Podewils and the Schwerinsches Palais, both designed by Jean de Bodt.

Deliberate town planning began in the second decade of the 18th century. The wide thoroughfare Unter den Linden, formerly bordered by shabby-looking houses, was rebuilt in an impressive manner. The development of the city's industry was favourably influenced by the arrival of Huguenots from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They settled in and around Berlin in large numbers and many new buildings appeared to house their businesses.

While the factories set up towards the end of the 17th century first confined themselves almost exclusively to supplying the army, the government and the court, later they gradually developed into industrial undertakings catering also to the general public. Through them the crafts of the Age of Absolutism attained higher standards that from the end of the 18th century greatly promoted the prosperity of the city's artisans. Workshops were established hi the eastern and northern areas of the city. By the end of the 18th century Berlin had a population of 172,000 and was the leading industrial city of Prussia.

At the same time, it was artistic development rather than systematic extension of the city that dominated town planning. From the end of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century Berlin's architecture was typified by Classicist and Neoclassical styles. This development is associated with the names of the architect K. G. Langhaus, and of G. Schadow, the sculptor mentioned above. The persistence of late Baroque can also be observed in Gontard's design of the Oranienburger Tor, (Gate), the Hamburger Tor and Rosenthaler Tor (architect: Unger). In the persons of Gentz and Carl Friedrich Schinkel a new generation of Classicist architects appeared on the scene. The municipal statutes of 1808 brought important administrative changes. The city councillors, elected from a new franchise, were granted far-reaching powers over local affairs, and in certain cases the city corporation was empowered to act on behalf of the state.

During the Napoleonic Wars building came to a standstill in Berlin. After the liberation of the city the Neue Wache (New Watchhouse; 1819-21. Schinkel marked the beginning of a period of activity. The building was to form part of an already existing complex, with the Opera and the Brandenburg Gate. Schinkel is also associated with the transition from Neo-Gothic to Classicism. From the point of view of town planning the Altes Museum and the Schauspielhaus (Theatre) were given great prominence. Schinkel found new forms worthy of ipth century architecture which transcended the bounds of Classicism. An example was his Bau-akademie (Academy of Architecture, 1832-36) destroyed in the Second World War. A fine example of surviving Classicism is the Singakademie (1825-27,) which today houses the Maxim Gorky Theatre.

During the European revolutions of 1848 Berlin also saw barricade-fighting. Though the bourgeois revolution fell, owing to the capitalist development of industry, Germany became one of the strongest industrial powers of the world. The one-time Prussian royal seat grew into the capital of the German Reich. This could be seen on the outward appearance of the town as well: it became an imperial, military centre. The inner city was charac­terized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population. New premises were added to the Berlin machine, electric and chemical fac­tories, where the majority of the population was given employment. The development of infrastructural units serving industry and administration furthered modern urbanization.

The appearance of old Berlin was crowned by the creations of Schinkel. In 1861 the city's area was extended by 2,410 ha, some of the annexed areas (Neu-Moabit, Wedding, Tiergarten and Hasenheide) becoming working-class developments for those who had till then lived in extremely squalid conditions.

New types of construction enterprise also emerged as early as the mid-19th century: corporate bodies, joint stock companies and the city's own administration were especially active in commissioning new large buildings. Besides industrial, trade, credit establishments and rail­way construction^ several public buildings were erected. The city magistracy of Berlin built the Rotes Rathaus (Red Council Hall, 1861-9 and the Stadthaus (City Hall; 1902-11). Other public buildings of the period were the Nationalgalerie (National Gallery; 1867-76), the Bode Museum (1897-1904), the Pergamon Museum (1909-30), the Dom (Cathedral; 1894-1904) and the Neuer Marstall (New Stables; 1869-1902).

However, crowded, ill-lit and ill-ventilated tenements to house the steadily growing number of manual workers also became a characteristic of the Berlin townscape. During the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm, Berlin's population doubled, reading 1,578,000 in 1890. Rapid increase continued in the following two decades. By 1912 the population was 2,095,000.

The Berlin of 1918-19 was the capital of revolutions. After the fall of the House of Hohenzollern, the Weimar Republic guaranteed democracy. The city centre was characterized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population.

In 1920 eight towns, among them Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf, Köpenick and Spandau, 59 villages and 27 large independently administered areas were merged into Greater Berlin (Einheitsgemeinde Berlin).

The territories united as Greater Berlin maintained their suburban characteristics for the following couple of decades, giving a peculiar atmosphere to the metropolis. The oldest historical town centre is situated on the terri­tory of the GDR. 55 percent of the territory of Greater Berlin of 1920 today is part of West Berlin.

Greater Berlin was divided into 20 administrative dis­tricts. Of the former 20 districts, 8 make up die capital of the GDR today, 12 West Berlin. The population was 4 million in 1925, which made it the third largest city in the world after London and New York. Economic life continued to be concentrated here in the 20th century, especially after the First World War. This meant that 80% of German capital was concentrated here, as well as the majority of German workers. As a consequence of this economic development, Berlin also became the center of scientific and cultural life and pioneered several modern trends in town planning.

In the metropolis that had developed in the shape of concentric circles around the historical inner city, 8 al­most independent city centres developed. As a result, the Bauhaus, too, was able to exert its influence in the plan­ning of new power plants, residential districts, business and cultural centres. The simple forms and new building materials such as concrete and steel, and the development of green belts around residential districts, dissolved the rigidity of the William era. Siemensstadt and the Friedrich Ebert Siedlung were typical housing estates of the time; the Gewerkschaftshaus, Buchdruckereihaus and other tall buildings, on Alexanderplatz, all destroyed during the war, were its best achievements.

When National Socialism turned Berlin into a military centre, gigantic architectural forms began to dominate the city-scape.

During the Second World War most of the capital's historic buildings were reduced to rubble. Of its 226 bridges, 128 were destroyed. Of the 1,562,000 homes only 370,000 remained habitable.

The inner districts, among them the Mitte (Centre), which included the historic centre of the city, suffered the severest damage.

The Soviet army liberated Berlin from Nazism on May 2,1945. The city lay in ruins, covered by 70m cu.m. of rubble. Life gradually returned to normal. In July 1945, in line with the treaty concluded by the Allies, American, British and French troops occupied its western districts. Berlin was divided into four zones and became the headquarters of the Allied Control Com­mission and Allied Military Command. Thereafter Berlin became a practically independent city. (The independent status of West Berlin is governed by the four-party convention signed by the Soviet Union. Great Britain, the United States and France in 1971. On November 30, 1948, a democratic Berlin magistracy was formed under the leadership of Friedrich Ebert as Chief Bürgermeister (Mayor). On October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was established with Berlin as its capital. Since 1949 there have been two cities in the former Berlin area: Berlin, the Capital of the GDR, (1,106,200 inhabit­ants), and West Berlin (2,004,300 inhabitants).

The reconstruction of the capital of the GDR, in­volving the methodical formation of an essentially new, socialist city, began under extremely adverse conditions caused by the heavy war damage and amidst great economic difficulties and political conflicts. However, nationalization of building land put an end to speculative jerry-building and created favourable conditions for achieving what was required. Top priority was given to applying modern urban building standards, so as to satisfy the needs of the working population. Special attention was devoted to the reconstruction and pres­ervation of historic buildings. An example was the reconstruction of the architectural treasures along Unter den Linden such as the former Zeughaus (today the Museum für Deutsche Geschichte-Museum of German History), the Staatsoper, the Kommode, the Palais Unter den Linden and the University.

On August 13, 1961, by virtue of a government resolution of the Warsaw Treaty countries, the boundary between the GDR and West Berlin was placed under control along its full length. An impressive city centre based on modern town-planning principles sprang up around Alexanderplatz.

Bern

Bern lies in the valley of the River Aare, on the Central Plain of Switzerland between the Alps and the Jura, at latitude 46°57' north and longitude 7°25' east. The central railway station is 540 m above sea level. Roads from Zurich, Biel and Neuchatel, Geneva and Lausanne, and Thun and the Bernese Alps meet at Bern, as do the rail­way lines between Lakes Constance and Geneva, and between northern Switzerland, Lotschberg and Italy. Bern has an administrative area of 51.5 sq.km. and a population (in 2003) of 121,900.

As an autonomous city within the Swiss Confederation, Bern has been the seat of the Federal Government, the Federal Parliament and the majority of the federal administrative institutions since 1848. At the same time it is the capital of Bern Canton and the seat of the cantonal administration, parliament and administrative offices. The city's cultural and economic significance has left its mark on its outward appearance.

There is ample evidence that the site of the present city and its surroundings was inhabited in prehistoric and ancient times by Celts (Helvetians), Romans, and Germans (Alemannians). Although the earliest remains found on the peninsula-formed by a bend in the River Aare where the Old City now stands-have been Roman coins, further north on the Enge peninsula a large Celtic settlement has been excavated, along with a Roman roadside settlement and a Galio-Roman church. These settlements are believed to have lasted until the end of the 4th century.

In the immediate vicinity of the city, the remains of - Roman villas and several 7th century Germanic cemeteries have been discovered.

In the early Middle Ages a number of detached homesteads, farms and small villages existed on the site of the present city. Till AD 843 the area was part of the Frankish Empire. It then belonged to the Kingdom of Burgundy, till it was annexed to the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. In 1127 Emperor Lothair appointed Prince Conrad of Zahringen as Regent of Burgundy.

Historians differ over the date and circumstances of the city's foundation. According to the old chronicles, Prince Berthold V of Zahringen built the city between Nydegg Fortress and the Clock Tower in 1191; it is, however, more probable that Berthold IV established a fortified village between Nydegg Fortress and Kreuz-gasse around 1155-60, and that his son Berthold V extended it as far as the Clock Tower.

It may be assumed that a small open riverside settle­ment, probably with a ferry, developed at the midpoint of the bend in the River Aare at an early date. The imperial Fortress of Nydegg, built on the surmounting rocks in the nth or 12th century, was a stronghold of the Zahringers and designed to protect the ferry. Around 1160 the village extended from the hollow west of the fortress to the line of the present Kreuzgasse. Of the original town wall only one section, 28 m long and 150 cm thick, has survived. It now forms the western facade of the Town Hall, which was built in 1406. Remains excavated in 1940-42 may have belonged to the walls of the town ditch. No trace of the ancient town gate has been found so far. The nth century settlement was 270 m long and 180 m wide. Its broad main street (today's Gerechtigkeitsgasse) curves slightly to the right and rises gently towards the west. It is flanked by two parallel streets, each narrower by about a third than the main street. The area for development was divided into lots measuring 17.6 m by 29.3 m. This plot pattern has remained unchanged to this day.

Around 1191 the city was extended westwards by 350 m and both the main street and side streets were lengthened. On the western side the city was flanked by a double wall that ran along a natural ditch, with a gatehouse and a still extant clock tower. The area thus enclosed is now called Zahringerstadt.

The first written document to mention Bern by name dates from 1208. The etymology of the name Bern is still in doubt. While tradition ascribes it to the heraldic bear that features on the city crest, others claim that Bern is the German form of Verona and was used because the Zahringen princes had close family ties with the sov­ereigns of Verona. However, the name may as well have a Celtic or Latin origin.

The last of the Zahringers, Bcrthold V, died in 1218, when the city again became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick II conferred upon it im­portant privileges, notably self-government, independent jurisdiction and the right to hold markets.

During the period that followed (1254-73), in the absence of an emperor, the city allied itself with Savoy, thus incurring the wrath of the Kyburgs and Habsburgs. With the help and patronage of monasteries, alliances with cities and communities in the valleys and the purchase and redemption of bonds, the city gradually increased its territory and influence.

Around 1256 Bern was extended westwards by a further 300 m as far as the next natural depression. 7'here a town wall with a new gate was built, where the Prison Tower now stands. This tower served as a prison until 1897, then as a storage room of the State Archives. In 1977-1979 it was converted into a cultural centre The area added to the city in 1256 is called Savoyerstadt in memory of Count Peter of Savoy, under whose protection it stood.

Around the same time Nydegg Fortress was demol­ished and the first wooden bridge was built where today's Untertor Bridge stands. The Nydegg site was then incorporated in the city's defence systems. In 1339 Bern won a victory near Laupen over the neighbouring city of Fribourg and the nobility allied with it. In 1353 it concluded an everlasting alliance with the founder cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, and following Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus and Zug, entered the Con­federation as its eighth canton.

A further 300 m of territory were added to the city around 1345. Its extended main axis (today's Spitalgasse) ended at the Christopher Tower, since demolished. The city grew beyond the small peninsula of the Aare, and its side-streets also increased in number.

In 1405 the city was almost completely destroyed by fire, but the wooden houses of the burgesses were soon replaced by stone houses. In 1415 the Bernese occupied Aargau, and from this time onwards the young republic concentrated its policies on the west. Its good relations with France involved it in a war with the troops of Charles the Bold, who was in league with the Habsburgs. It ended with victories for Bern at Grandson and Murtcn in 1476 and near Nancy in 1477, which enhanced the canton's significance and power in Europe.

The participation in the Italian campaign conducted by the cantons and the service of their troops in foreign armies led to a certain demoralization of the population and abuses in the Church. Therefore the ideas of Huldrych Zwingli, the Zurich reformer, attracted numerous followers, so that in 1528 the new belief became the established religion of the city. The expro­priation of ecclesiastical estates added to the wealth and territory of the Bernese Republic, which reached its greatest extent after the occupation of Waadt in 1536.

During the 15th century the defences of the city were further developed. From the system of strongholds built between 1458 and 1473 a section of wall in Hodlerstrasse, near the Museum of Fine Arts, and east of this a structure known as the Blood Tower on the River Aare still remain. The Town Hall (by Heinrich von Gengenbach and Hans Hetzel) was built in 1406-17 and later rebuilt on several occasions; in 1939-42 its ground-floor hall w?s restored to its original form. The Cathedral (by Matthaus Ensinger) was begun in 1421; the frontal tower left unfinished in 1596 was completed in 1889-93; the sculptures of the main door were created by Erbardt Kiing in 1490-95. Apart from the Dominican Monastery, Antonitc House, the former church of the hospital order of the Antonites, is the only surviving monastic church in the city. Built between 1492 and 1505, it was later used as granary and a mail coach house; it was renovated and altered in 1939-40.

Nydegg Church was erected on the foundations of the Nydegg Fortress, which had been demolished in 1260-70. The chancel dates from 1341-6, the bell tower from 1480 and the main aisle from 1494-1500. The church was completely restored under the city's pres­ervation programme in 1951-3.

Most of the fountains that still typify the city date from the 16th century, and are partly or fully attributed to the sculptor Hans Gieng. Zahringer Fountain, decorated with a statue of a bear in armour, was erected in 1535 by Hans Hiltprand.

During the Thirty Years' War the authorities built a rampart and ditch system (1622-34) in front of the town wall. A new gate, called the Obertor, now no longer extant, lay on the western side.

In 1653 the unfavourable economic consequences of the Thirty Years' War and the privileges enjoyed by the nobility at the expense of the impoverished peasantry provoked a peasant revolt that was brutally put down. The revolutionary attempts of the 18th century were likewise thwarted.

During the 17th and 18th centuries several important buildings were erected in the city. The Kornhaus (granary) was built by Jakob Diinz (1667-1742) and Samuel Baumgartner in 1711-18 and rebuilt at the end of the 19th century. Restoration of the facade began in 1975; today it houses a museum and an underground restaurant.

The Town Hall of the 'Ausserer Stand' was built to the plans of Albrecht Stiirler in 1728-30, as the seat of a "mock parliament" of young patricians.

The construction of Erlacherhof, designed by Albrecht Sturlcr (1705-1748) for Hieronymus von Erlach, began about 1746, and was completed according to a modified plan (probably by J. A. Nahl) in 1752. In 1832 it was handed over to the municipal government and from 1848 to 1858 was the seat of the Federal Council. The building is one of the most highly decorated patrician houses in the city. Its facade was restored in 1975-79.

The French Church belonging to the city's oldest mon­astery, founded by the Dominican order in 1269, was built between 1270 and 1285. Its western front and the facade of the south aisle were built by Abraham Wild in 1753-4. Both were renovated in 1968.

The Chapter House, dating from 1745-55, was erected according to designs of Albrecht Sturlcr on the site of a building formerly owned by the Teutonic Order. It is an outstanding piece of architecture and an important element in the townscape. Since 1803 the building has been the seat of the cantonal administration. It was renovated in 1928-9 and 1979-80.

The present City and University Library was built as a granary in 1755-60 (Ludwig Emanuel Zehender, 1687-1757). It was extended in the 19th century and renovated in 1969-73.

The Main Guard House (by Niklaus Sprtingli) was erected for the guard corps in 1766-68. From 1832 to 1910 it served as Police Headquarters. It was partly restored in 1938.

Under the influence of the French Revolution social unrest spread among the population of the cantons, and the government itself split into two factions. French troops invading Swiss territory found little resistance, and even the victory gained by the Bernese near Neuenegg on March 5, 1798, failed to counteract the defeat they suffered near Grauholz on the same day. The French army occupied and ransacked the city.

France forced Switzerland to accept a new constitution which transformed the confederation into a unified Helvetian Republic. As a result Bern lost the territories of Waadt and Aargau. But after the failure of the new political initiatives Napoleon in 1803 introduced an Act of Mediation, establishing a federal state of 19 cantons. A division of lands was made between the Canton and the City of Bern, after which they were administered separately. Following the 'Battle of the Nations' (1813) the Bern Act of Mediation was repealed and attempts made to revive the old republic. However, under the new federal constitution introduced in 1815, the city and state administration were insufficiently separated.

Till the 19th century, the layout of the city adopted in the 17th century underwent no significant change. When the increase in population brought the need for new housing the Bernese set about demolishing the western fortifications. The last remnant of the city's defence system, the Christopher Tower, was pulled down in 1865.

The revolution in France in July 1830 increased unrest in Bern, and the patrician leaders resigned. The new liberal constitution of 1831 was accepted despite the resistance of the conservatives. It abolished the priority of the city over the county and ensured the sovereignty of the people. The constitution of 1846 and the still valid state constitution of 1893 brought the people further democratic rights.

In 1832 a cantonal order was issued for the establish­ment of communities, and the administrative structure acquired then by the city of Bern hardly differed from that of other communities in the country.

The federal constitution of 1848 transformed the federation of 22 cantons into a federal state, and on November 28 of the same year the newly established Federal Assembly appointed Bern as capital. The city committed itself to making available and maintaining free of charge the premises required by the political authorities and bodies of the Confederation. That was a considerable burden on a comparatively small population, and in 1875 Bern redeemed this obligation.

The administrative and economic development of Bern as the capital of the Confederation was well bal­anced. The buildings required for the government and administration were completed. Modern bridges were built over the River Aare to allow development of new housing on the right bank. The city became linked with the Swiss railway network in 1858, which improved communications and stimulated the economy. In 1844 Untertor Bridge, which had become far too narrow for the volume of traffic, was superseded by Nydegg Bridge, and thus the territory east of the Aare peninsula was opened up. Kirchenfcld Bridge, built in 1883, led to the systematic development of the area south of the old city centre, while Kornhaus Bridge (1898) led to the building of new housing estates on the northern area which till then had only been occupied by scattered villas and cottages. The growth in th.e population and electorate had its effect on the administration of the city. An 1887 municipal by-law abolished the municipal assembly and introduced elections and voting by ballot instead. The municipal assembly was replaced by a city council which acted as a parliament. A municipal council was established as executive body, headed by the mayor.

The second half of the 19th century was a period of rapid growth in the city's area. The suburbs were gradually merged into a single community that still regards the old town as its social and economic centre. Industrialization brought factories to former suburbs especially along the railway lines leading to the city, but no major industrial district developed.

One of the most important 19th century building complexes is the Houses of Parliament. The west wing was designed by Ferdinand Stadler and erected by Friedrich Studer in 1851-57. The east wing (1888-1892) and Parliament building (1894-1902), the seat of the Federal Council and Federal Assembly, are the work of Hans Wilhelm Auer. During the same century the fountains were further embellished, and some of the plinths and basins added.

In the 20th century unification with the neighbouring village of Biimpliz, west of Bern, in 1918, added further to the city's area.

The latest full revision of the municipal regulations (basic statutes) took place in 1903. The growing tasks facing the community were considered and a system of 'facultative financial referendum' was introduced, under which financial measures proposed by the municipal authorities are decided upon by plebiscite if a certain aumber of citizens so require.

Bern and the surrounding communities formed a country planning association in 1963, which functions for the time being under civil law. It unites about twenty communities which jointly tackle problems of traffic, water supply, sewage and refuse disposal.

The layout of the city at the time of its foundation, the long-sighted planning of its street system and the regularly arranged building lots are indications of official control. A document from 1310 refers to four 'building magistrates' responsible to the Council and the Judge. Their duties included the drafting of building regulations and the control of their implementation.

The organization and jurisdiction of the Building Office thus formed can be traced through the various by-laws issued down the centuries. Since the reform of 1694, the office has been directed by a single Chief Architect who is concurrently a member of the Lower Council. There are three master craftsmen assigned to him: one responsible for woodwork, one for stone structures, and a third for the Cathedral. In addition to directing the work of their skilled workers, the master craitsmen prepare their own plans and act also as designers. Numerous buildings in Bern have been designed by them. The scope of authority of the building office was not confined to public building. From a building regulation dated 1786 it clearly appears that private individuals could also be required by the office to repair their houses at their own expense.

Investments were approved by the Council, which was also responsible for building matters; if an important new building was involved, a committee of building experts would also examine the plans and supervise their execution.

The statutes on building valid today were passed by the electorate in 1979. In addition to regulating the legal and technical aspects of public and private building, they contain the basic principles of general town development with a view to protecting the townscape and landscape.

The inner city, and especially its lower section stretching between the Clock Tower and the Nydegg, is closely guarded through preservation and control of architectural development. The statutes issued in 1979 govern architectural alterations, the formation of facades, the materials to be employed, the siting of fountains and the type of advertisements admissible. They allow the modernization of the internal arrangement of buildings, while protecting the old townscape.

The old inner city of Bern constitutes a complex of historic monuments. The medieval layout of the historic nucleus of the city and the many late Baroque buildings have survived intact. The city's preservation regulations form part and parcel of its technical administration.