- •The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations Edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith
- •Editor's Preface
- •Key Features of the Book
- •Contents
- •Detailed Contents
- •13. Diplomacy
- •14. The United Nations and International Organization
- •List of Figures
- •List of Boxes
- •List of Tables
- •About the Contributors
- •Introduction
- •From International Politics to World Politics
- •Theories of World Politics
- •Realism and World Politics
- •Liberalism and World Politics
- •World-System Theory and World Politics
- •The Three Theories and Globalization
- •Globalization and its Precursors
- •Globalization: Myth or Reality?
- •Chapter 1. The Globalization of World Politics
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction: a Globalizing World
- •Globalization: a Definition
- •Aspects of Globalization
- •Historical Origins
- •Qualifications
- •Key Points
- •Globalization and the States-System
- •The Westphalian Order
- •The End of History
- •The End of Sovereignty
- •The Persistence of the State
- •Key Points
- •Post-Sovereign Governance
- •Substate Global Governance
- •Suprastate Global Governance
- •Marketized Global Governance
- •Global Social Movements
- •Key Points
- •The Challenge of Global Democracy
- •Globalization and the Democratic State
- •Global Governance Agencies and Democracy
- •Global Market Democracy?
- •Global Social Movements and Democracy
- •Key Points
- •Conclusion
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 2. The Evolution of International Society
- •Reader's guide
- •Origins and Definitions
- •Key Points
- •Ancient Greece and Renaissance Italy
- •Key Points
- •European International Society
- •Key Points
- •The Globalization of International Society
- •Key Points
- •Problems of Global International Society
- •Key Points
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 3. International history 1900-1945
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction
- •The origins of World War One
- •Germany's bid for world power status
- •The 'Eastern Question'
- •Key points
- •Peace-making, 1919: the Versailles settlement Post-war problems
- •President Wilson's 'Fourteen Points'
- •Self-determination: the creation of new states
- •The future of Germany
- •'War guilt' and reparations
- •Key points
- •The global economic slump, 1929-1933
- •Key points
- •The origins of World War Two in Asia and the Pacific
- •Japan and the 'Meiji Restoration'
- •Japanese expansion in China
- •The Manchurian crisis and after
- •Key points
- •The path to war in Europe
- •The controversy over the origins of the Second World War
- •The rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe
- •From appeasement to war
- •Key points
- •Conclusion
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading General
- •World War I and after
- •World War II
- •Chapter 4. International history 1945-1990
- •Introduction
- •End of empire
- •Key points
- •The cold war
- •1945-1953: Onset of the cold war
- •1953-1969: Conflict, confrontation, and compromise
- •1969-1979: The rise and fall of detente
- •1979-86: 'The second cold war'
- •The bomb
- •Conclusion
- •General
- •The cold war
- •The bomb
- •Decolonization
- •Richard Crockatt
- •Introduction
- •Key points
- •Internal factors: the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union Structural problems in the Soviet system
- •The collapse of the Soviet empire
- •Economic restructuring
- •Key points
- •The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe
- •The legacy of protest in Eastern Europe
- •Gorbachev and the end of the Brezhnev doctrine
- •Key points
- •External factors: relations with the United States Debate about us policy and the end of the cold war
- •Key points
- •The interaction between internal and external environments
- •Isolation of the communist system from the global capitalist system
- •Key points
- •Conclusion
- •Key points
- •Chapter 6. Realism
- •Introduction: the timeless wisdom of Realism
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction: the timeless wisdom of Realism
- •Key points
- •One Realism, or many?
- •Key points
- •The essential Realism
- •Statism
- •Survival
- •Self-help
- •Key points
- •Conclusion: Realism and the globalization of world politics
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 7. World-System Theory
- •Introduction
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction
- •Key Points
- •The Origins of World-System Theory
- •Key Points
- •Wallerstein and World-System Theory
- •Key Points
- •The Modern World-System in Space and Time
- •Key Points
- •Politics in the Modern World-System: The Sources of Stability
- •States and the Interstate System
- •Core-States—Hegemonic Leadership and Military Force
- •Semi-peripheral States—Making the World Safe for Capitalism
- •Peripheral States—At home with the Comprador Class
- •Geoculture
- •Key Points
- •Crisis in the Modern World-System
- •The Economic Sources of Crisis
- •The Political Sources of Crisis
- •The Geocultural Sources of Crisis
- •The Crisis and the Future: Socialism or Barbarism?
- •Key Points
- •World-System Theory and Globalization
- •Key Points
- •Questions
- •A guide to further reading
- •Chapter 8. Liberalism
- •Introduction
- •Varieties of Liberalism
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction
- •Key points
- •Varieties of Liberalism
- •Liberal internationalism
- •Idealism
- •Liberal institutionalism
- •Key points
- •Three liberal responses to globalization
- •Key points
- •Conclusion and postscript: the crisis of Liberalism
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 9. New Approaches to International Theory
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction
- •Key Points
- •Explanatory/Constitutive Theories and Foundational/Anti-Foundational Theories
- •Key Points
- •Rationalist Theories: The Neo-Realist/Neo-Liberal Debate
- •Key Points
- •Reflectivist Theories
- •Normative Theory
- •Key Points
- •Feminist Theory
- •Key Points
- •Critical Theory
- •Key Points
- •Historical Sociology
- •Key Points
- •Post-Modernism
- •Key Points
- •Bridging the Gap: Social Constructivism
- •Key Points
- •Conclusion
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 10.International Security in the Post-Cold War Era
- •Introduction
- •What is meant by the concept of security?
- •The traditional approach to national security
- •The 'security dilemma'
- •The difficulties of co-operation between states
- •The problem of cheating
- •The problem of relative-gains
- •The opportunities for co-operation between states 'Contingent realism'
- •Key points
- •Mature anarchy
- •Key points
- •Liberal institutionalism
- •Key points
- •Democratic peace theory
- •Key points
- •Ideas of collective security
- •Key points
- •Alternative views on international and global security 'Social constructivist' theory
- •Key points
- •'Critical security' theorists and 'feminist' approaches
- •Key points
- •Post-modernist views
- •Key points
- •Globalist views of international security
- •Key points
- •The continuing tensions between national, international, and global security
- •Conclusions
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Web links
- •Chapter 11. International Political Economy in an Age of Globalization
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction: The Significance of ipe for Globalized International Relations
- •What is ipe? Terms, Labels, and Interpretations
- •Ipe and the issues of ir
- •Key Points
- •Words and Politics
- •Key Points
- •Thinking about ipe, ir, and Globalization States and the International Economy
- •The Core Question
- •What is 'International' and what is 'Global'
- •Key Points
- •What Kind of World have We made? 'International' or 'Global'?
- •Global Capital Flows
- •International Production and the Transnational Corporation
- •'Domestic' and 'International'
- •The Ideological Basis of the World Economy
- •Key Points
- •Conclusions: 'So what?'
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
- •Chapter 12. International Regimes
- •Introduction
- •Reader's guide
- •Introduction
- •Key Points
- •The Nature of Regimes
- •Conceptualizing Regimes
- •Defining Regimes
- •Classifying Regimes
- •Globalization and International Regimes
- •Security Regimes
- •Environmental Regimes
- •Communication Regimes
- •Economic Regimes
- •Key Points
- •Competing Theories: 1. The Liberal Institutional Approach
- •Impediments to Regime Formation
- •The Facilitation of Regime Formation
- •Competing Theories: 2. The Realist Approach
- •Power and Regimes
- •Regimes and Co-ordination
- •Key Points
- •Conclusion
- •Questions
- •Guide to further reading
The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe
The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, marked most graphically by the destruction of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, was intimately related to events in the Soviet Union but also had roots of its own. The nations of Eastern Europe had experienced only forty years of communist rule as opposed to the seventy of the Soviet Union and in all cases except Yugoslavia had had communism imposed on them rather than choosing it themselves. The suddenness of communist collapse in Eastern Europe, the relative ease with which citizens shed the habits of forty years, suggests that those habits were to a considerable extent a matter of form. One important force which had held them in place since the late 1940s was the threat of Soviet intervention to reimpose orthodoxy should Eastern Europeans stray from the path set down for them. Two things therefore need explaining:
1. The sources of opposition in Eastern Europe to communist rale.
2. The Soviet Union's decision not to intervene to check the uprisings which took place in the summer and autumn of 1989.
The legacy of protest in Eastern Europe
After Stalin's draconian imposition of Soviet rule between 1947 and 1953 Khrushchev had acknowledged the principle of separate paths to socialism, though within strict limits. In practice this meant that where socialism and the integrity of the bloc itself seemed at risk, as in the popular uprisings in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, Moscow would act uncompromisingly. The crushing of the Czechoslovak revolt in August 1968 was justified on the principle of 'limited sovereignty' for Eastern bloc nations (also known as the Brezhnev doctrine). Where, as in Poland in 1956 and 1980-1, indigenous leaders could be found to enforce Moscow's will, direct Intervention could be avoided.
Where, however, as in Romania and Albania, communism developed distinctively national forms but within the framework of rigid dictatorships, Moscow was prepared to tolerate, or at least grudgingly accept, a greater or lesser degree of detachment from Moscow. In the case of Albania, a small nation with no border with the Soviet Union, this went as far as alignment with China in the growing split between the Soviet Union and China. Romania under Ceausescu maintained a somewhat ambiguous relationship with Moscow and the Warsaw Pact, not unlike France's with NATO: political and military independence within the framework of broad bloc alignment. In short, the Eastern bloc was more diverse and potentially more fragile than the word 'bloc' would suggest.
In accounting for the events of 1989 it would be hard to overestimate the importance of the rise of Solidarity in Poland in 1980. Poland had always been critical to Moscow both because of its strategic position on the Soviet border and because of the legacy of hatred between the Poles and the Russians. Formed in the shipyards of Gdansk as a union of workers, Solidarity quickly assumed the status of a quasi-political body independent of the Communist Party, its membership comprising one-third of the Polish people. It called for a referendum on Polish membership of the WTO and on the principle of one-party rule. With alarm bells ringing furiously in Moscow, Soviet military intervention was forestalled only by the insertion of a new Polish leader, General Jaruselski, who was willing to do Moscow's bidding by declaring martial law and banning Solidarity. However, the difference from earlier instances of suppression of opposition was that Solidarity continued a thriving underground existence during the 1980s, while the Catholic Church carried on public opposition along lines laid down by Solidarity. Dissidence thus achieved momentum and extended beyond small groups of intellectuals.
Box 5.4. Revolutions in Eastern Europe |
|
|
|
1988 |
|
May |
Janos Kadar replaced as General Secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party. |
1989 |
|
Jan. |
Hungarian parliament permits independent parties. |
April |
Ban on Solidarity in Poland repealed. |
June |
Elections in Poland won overwhelmingly by Solidarity candidates. |
July |
Solidarity invited by General Jaruselski to form coalition government. |
Sept. |
Hungary allows East German refugees to cross into Austria. |
Oct. |
Hungary adopts new constitution which guarantees multiparty democracy. East German leader Erich Honecker resigns and is replaced by Egon Krenz. |
Nov. |
|
3rd |
Czechoslovakia opens border for Easteners seeking to go to the West. |
10th |
Berlin Wall dismantled; General Secretary of the Bulgarian Community Party, Zhivkov, resigns. 24th: Czechoslovak leadership resigns. |
Dec. |
|
6th |
East German government resigns. |
22nd |
Ceausescu overthrown in Romania and executed (on the 25th). |
Beyond Poland, though events were less dramatic, dissidence also had a history and gained some new stimulus from the development of organizations designed to monitor compliance of Eastern bloc governments with the human rights provisions of the Helsinki Accords, agreed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (1975). Particularly important was Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia. A similar group existed in Moscow itself. Though these organizations were hounded by the authorities, their members imprisoned and in some cases deported, they attracted enormous attention in the West and exerted some leverage over Soviet bloc governments. They were after all simply demanding that their governments make good the promises they had made on human rights in signing the Helsinki Accords. In this way the detente agreements proved to have important subterranean effects in the Soviet bloc.
Flowing directly from this point, and of crucial significance in accounting for the timing of the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, was the demonstration effect of glasnost and perestroika in the Soviet Union. After 1985, above all in Poland and Hungary, while dissidents demanded the same— indeed more—from their governments as Gorbachev was giving to the Soviet people, the Eastern European leaderships were bereft of the instrument they had always been able to rely on in the past—the threat of Soviet intervention. By the middle of 1988 the opposition in Hungary had forced the removal of the Communist Party leader, Janos Kadar. In January 1989 General Jaruselski was forced to repeal the ban on Solidarity and hold elections. In the elections, which were won decisively by Solidarity, Jaruselski found himself being urged by Gorbachev to accede to a Solidarity-led government (Gati 1990: 167; Dawisha 1990: 155).