Unit 6 diseases and sympotoms

Infections

New Vocabulary:

multiplication – увеличение

prion /ˈprʌɪən/ - прион

viroid/ˈvʌɪrɔɪd/ - вироид

fungus – грибок

host – хозяин, организм-носитель(паразита)

innate – врожденная реакция

adaptive response – адаптивная реакция

constellation – совокупность факторов, определяющих данное действие

fatigue – слабость

apparent (inapparent ) infection – очевидная(бессимптомная) инфекция

1. Read the text and translate it:

Infection

An infection is the invasion of body tissues by disease-causing microorganisms, their multiplication and the reaction of body tissues to these microorganisms and the toxins that they produce. Infections are caused by microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, and viroids, though larger organisms like macroparasites and fungi can also infect. Hosts normally fight infections themselves via their immune system. Mammalian hosts (организм-носитель у млекопитающих) react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response. Pharmaceuticals can also help fight infections. The branch of medicine that focuses on infections and pathogens is infectious disease medicine.

Infections are classified in multiple ways. They are classified by the causative agent as well as by the constellation of symptoms and medical signs that are produced. An infection that produces symptoms is an apparent infection. An infection that is active, but does not produce noticeable symptoms, may be called inapparent, silent, or subclinical. An infection that is inactive or dormant (неактивная, латентная) is called a latent infection. A short-term infection is an acute infection. A long-term infection is a chronic infection.

2. Answer the questions to the text:

1. What is infection?

2. What can cause infections?

3. Via what does the human organism fight infections?

4. What branch of medicine is engaged in studying infections and pathogens?

5. How are infections classified?

6. What do we call a short-term infection?

7. What medical procedures can help to define a disease?

3. Match the words and their definitions:

inflammation diagnosis acute virus infection toxin latent bacteria tissue symptom

a poisonous substance, especially one that is produced by bacteria the act or process of causing or getting a disease a tiny parasite living, growing and reproducing its kind inside a host cell that causes infectious diseases the simplest and smallest forms of life and are often a cause of disease a collection of cells that form the different parts of humans a condition in which a part of the body becomes red, sore and swollen because of infection a change in your body or mind that shows that you are not healthy existing, but not yet very noticeable, active or well developed very serious or severe the act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness

4. Read about the difference between viral and bacterial infection and then speak about the symptoms that can help to distinguish them:

Diagnosis of infections can be difficult as specific signs and symptoms are rare. If an infection is suspected, blood, urine and sputum cultures are usually the first step. Chest x-rays and stool analysis may also aid diagnosis. Spinal fluid can be tested to ensure that there is no brain infection. The symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes, coughing, or a runny nose. Bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms. It can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. It's important to distinguish, because viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics.

Comparison of viral and bacterial infection
Characteristic	Viral infection	Bacterial infection
Typical symptoms	In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral conjunctivitis or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like herpes. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning.	The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks (отличительный знак) of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection. Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An ear infection is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear. A possibly infected cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely infected.
Cause	Pathogenic viruses	Pathogenic bacteria

5. Read the following text and translate it:

The Source and Spread of Infection

There is a general chain of events that applies to infections. For infections to occur a given chain of events must occur. The chain of events involves several steps—which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible (подходящий) host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Infection begins when an organism successfully colonizes by entering the body, growing and multiplying. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished (получающие недостаточное питание), have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility (восприимчивость) to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices (отверстия) like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.

Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised (под угрозой) and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes. Infectious organisms may be transmitted either by direct or indirect contact. Direct contact occurs when an individual comes into contact with the reservoir. This may mean touching infected bodily fluids or drinking contaminated water. Direct contact infections can also result from inhalation of infectious organisms found in aerosol particles emitted by sneezing or coughing. Indirect contact occurs when the microorganism is able to withstand the harsh environment outside the host for long periods of time and still remain infective when specific opportunity arises. Inanimate objects that are frequently contaminated include toys, furniture, door knobs, tissue wipes or personal care products from an infected individual. Consuming food products and fluid that have been contaminated by contact with an infecting organism is another case of disease transmission by indirect contact.

6. Answer the questions to the text:

1. What chain of events can lead to infection?

2. When does infection begin?

3. What factors contribute to infection`s susceptibility?

4. Through what orifices do pathogenic microorganisms enter the human body?

5. How can infectious organisms be transmitted?

7. Make dialogues between:

• a doctor and a patient with some infectious disease;

• an examiner and an examinee at the examination in infectious diseases

8. Match the given diseases with their descriptions:

mumps, diphtheria, gangrene, gastroenteritis, malaria, cholera, AIDS, tuberculosis.

1. A serious bacterial disease spread through infected food or water. The infected person suffers stomach cramps, diarrhea and dehydration. The disease is often fatal.

2. A viral disease spread mostly by sexual intercourse. It is also transmitted through infected blood and plasma transfusion, through using unsterilized needles for injections. It causes a breakdown of the body`s immune system.

3. A condition where tissues die and decay as a result of bacterial action because the blood supply has been lost through injury or disease of the artery.

4. A tropical, recurrent disease caused by a parasite Plasmodium which enters the body after a bite from the mosquito.

5. An infectious disease of children, with fever and swelling in the salivary glands, caused by a paramyxovirus.

6. Inflammation of the membrane lining the intestines and the stomach, caused by a viral infection, and resulting in diarrhea and vomiting.

7. A serious infectious disease of children. Its symptoms are fever and the formation of a fibrous growth like a membrane in the throat which restricts breathing.

8. An infectious disease, where infected lumps form in the tissue, its commonest form attacks the lungs, causing patients to lose weight, cough blood and have a fever.

9. Read the following text and then be ready to speak on its content:

Microorganisms

Microorganisms were once regarded as being members of the plant kingdom, apart from protozoa (простейшее) which were classified as animals. It became obvious that this arbitrary (произвольная) classification resulted in confusions, even absurdities. A virus infecting an animal cannot, by any criterion, be termed a plant. There became almost as many systems of classification as there were microbiologists.

In order to clarify the nature of microorganisms, we may distinguish between those, like fungi and some algae (простейшие водоросли), which have a cell structure similar to higher organisms and those, like the bacteria and the blue-green algae, which have a comparatively simple cell structure. We will refer to the former as “higher protists (простейшие)” and the latter as “lower protists”. The viruses cannot at present be adequately classified, so we shall place them in a group of their own.

10. Talk it over.

1. How were microorganisms once classified?

2. What may be done in order to clarify the nature of microorganisms?

3. Describe the structure of the two groups of microorganisms, please.

4. How can they be referred to?

5. Shall we place the viruses in the first group or in the second?

11. Choose the correct word corresponding to the definitions below:

parasite, stomach, fever, protein, chromosome, chemical

1. One of the minute threads in every nucleus in animal and plant cells, carrying genes.

2. Animal or plant living on or in another and getting its food from it.

3. Condition of the human body with temperature higher than usual, especially as a sign of illness.

4. Substance used in, or obtained by, chemistry.

5. Bag-like part of the alimentary canal into which food passes to be digested.

6. Body-building substance essential to good health, in such foods as milk, eggs, meat.

12. Read the text, translate it and then choose the correct form according to the content:

Fever

Fever (also known as pyrexia /pʌɪˈrɛksɪə, pɪ-/ гипертермия, лихорадка) is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of body temperature above the normal range of 36.5–37.5 °C (98–100 °F) due to an increase in the temperature regulatory set-point (установка). This increase is in set-point triggers (провоцирующие факторы), increased muscle tone and shivering.

As a person's temperature increases, there is, in general, a feeling of cold despite an increasing body temperature. Once the new temperature is reached, there is a feeling of warmth. A fever can be caused by many different conditions ranging from benign to potentially serious. There are arguments for and against the usefulness of fever, and the issue is controversial. With the exception of very high temperatures, treatment to reduce fever is often not necessary; however, antipyretic medications can be effective at lowering the temperature, which may improve the affected person's comfort.

Fever differs from uncontrolled hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the body's thermoregulatory set-point, due to excessive heat production and/or insufficient thermoregulation. A fever is usually accompanied by sickness behavior, which consists of lethargy, depression, anorexia, sleepiness, and the inability to concentrate.

1. Fever is one of the common medical signs characterized by very low temperature.

2. As a person`s temperature decreases, there is, a feeling of warmth.

3. Fever doesn`t differ from uncontrolled hyperthermia.

4. A fever is usually accompanied by sickness behavior, such as depression, sleepiness, anorexia and the inability to concentrate.

5. Modern medical science states that it is useful for a person to have fever.

13. Speak about:

1. an infectious disease you were ill with;

2. any infectious disease you are interested in, its etiology, signs and symptoms and give your recommendations how to treat it.

14. Complete the following sentences:

1. Thanks to vaccination against smallpox… .

2. The mortality rate from such diseases as TB, dysentery, diphtheria, and measles has considerably diminished owing to… .

3. If there is an inflammation somewhere in your body, the blood-test… .

4. Prescriptions for pills, mixtures and ointments are made out by… .

5. A sore throat usually occurs when… .

6. Doctors advise us to keep to bed in case… .

7. The doctor felt my pulse, listened to my heart and lungs and… .

8. In order to cure someone of flu the doctors usually advise… .

9. If I suffer from a splitting headache I usually… .

10. People who are susceptible to cold should… .

15. Read the text and translate it:

Cough

A cough is a sudden and often repetitively occurring reflex which helps to clear the large breathing passages from secretions, irritants (раздражающие факторы), foreign particles and microbes. The cough reflex consists of three phases: an inhalation, a forced exhalation against a closed glottis (щель), and a violent release of air from the lungs following opening of the glottis, usually accompanied by a distinctive sound. Coughing can happen voluntarily (самовольно) as well as involuntarily.

Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit (выгадывать) evolutionarily by causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can be triggered by choking (поперхнуться, давиться), smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip (после использования капель), chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors (ингибиторы АПФ).

Treatment should target the cause; for example, smoking cessation (прекращение курения) or discontinuing (прекращать прием) ACE inhibitors. Some people may be worried about serious illnesses, and reassurance (достоверность) may suffice. Cough suppressants (средства, подавляющие кашель) such as codeine or dextromethorphan are frequently prescribed, but have been demonstrated to have little effect. Other treatment options may target airway inflammation or may promote mucus expectoration (отхаркивание, мокрота). As it is a natural protective reflex, suppressing the cough reflex might have damaging effects, especially if the cough is productive (продуктивный). A cough can be classified by its duration, character, quality, and timing. The duration can be either acute (of sudden onset) if it is present less than three weeks, subacute if it is present between three and eight weeks, and chronic when lasting longer than eight weeks. A cough can be non-productive (dry) or productive (when sputum is coughed up). It may occur only at night (then called nocturnal cough), during both night and day, or just during the day. The most common cause of an acute or subacute cough is a viral respiratory tract infection such as the common cold, pneumonia, pertussis (коклюш), or tuberculosis. In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.

16. Answer the following questions to the text:

1. What is a cough?

2. What does frequent coughing usually indicates?

3. What is the most common cause of an acute cough?

4. What are coughing`s treatment options?

5. Why is it dangerous to suppress the coughing reflex?

6. How can a cough be classified?

7. What is the difference between acute and chronic cough?

17. Read the text about cough-related diseases and compare them. Then speak about the differences of these diseases and define their signs and symptoms:

Asthma and Chronic Bronchitis

Asthma is a common cause of chronic cough in adults and children. Bronchial asthma can occur secondarily (во вторую очередь) to a variety of stimuli. Stresses to which individuals with hyper-reactive bronchial trees (бронхиальное дерево) are subjected may precipitate (ускорить; вызвать) asthma attacks. These stresses may include viral respiratory infection; exercise; emotional upset; nonspecific factors (e.g. changes in barometric pressure or temperature); inhalation of cold air or such irritants as gasoline fumes (запах бензина), fresh paint and other odors, or cigarette smoke; and exposure to specific allergens. Coughing may be the only symptom the person has from their asthma, or asthma symptoms may also include wheezing (хрип), shortness of breath (одышка), and a tight feeling in the chest. All of this may subside (ослабевать) quickly or persist (сохраняться, продолжаться) for hours to days. Depending on how severe the asthma is it can be treated with bronchodilators (бронхолитические средства) (medicine which causes the airways to open up) or inhaled steroids (ингаляционные стероиды). Treatment of the asthma should make the cough go away.

Chronic bronchitis is defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus, for at least three months in two consecutive years (последующих года). Chronic bronchitis is often the cause of “smoker’s cough.” The tobacco causes inflammation, secretion of mucus into the airway, and difficulty clearing that mucus out of the airways. Coughing helps clear those secretions out. May be treated by quitting smoking. May also be caused by Pneumoconiosis (пневмокониоз) and long-term fume inhalation.

18. Read the following text and translate it:

Cancer Diseases

The tissue and organs of the human body are made up of cells. All cells become old and die, and new cells are produced to replace them. The division and growth of cells is controlled but if this process gets out of control, the cells will continue to divide and develop into a lump (уплотнение, опухоль) which is called tumor. Tumors are either benign (доброкачественная) or malignant (злокачественная) and the name given to a malignant tumor is cancer. Cancer cells can invade other tissues within the body and produce additional tumors.

Signs and Symptoms of Cancer

It is so important to detect the signs and symptoms of cancer in order to treat this particular health issue. There are so many kinds of cancers that don’t show any particular signs or symptoms unless and until it gets bigger. And then it becomes too late to treat it. At times this disease might be discovered even before any signs of cancer are discovered.

Checking for possibility of cancer or tumor that can be cancerous, before you could discover any cancer symptoms, is popularly termed as cancer screening (скрининг рака). With cancer screening as well as routine physical exam you are able to detect any signs of cancer and if detected, go ahead with early treatments before it gets worst. Along with chemotherapy there are many other lab treatments that can assist treating cancer and kill all micro-organisms that might help in increasing the size of tumor. There are dozens of tumor types that can be either gentle or even cancerous. Treatment on tumor depends on what type it is of and how big or small it is. If in case you are a victim of breast, colon, rectum or cervix cancer (рак груди, толстой кишки, прямой кишки или рак шейки матки) you can follow some lab procedures, tests, x-rays and others to begin the treatment. Chemotherapy is one of the treatments used now days to diagnose and find out all possible cancer symptoms.

Some of the common signs and symptoms of cancer include:

• Alterations (отклонения) in habits of bowel (кишечник) or bladder (мочевой пузырь)

• Changes in mole (родинка) or in wart (бородавка)

• Unusual changes in weight

• Bleeding or discharge (выделения)

• Sore (язва, нарыв) that fails to heal

If you find out signs of cancer in skin, tissues or breast, livers, lungs, or stomach it is quite obvious that you are suffering from carcinoma cancer. When you discover carcinoma you need to begin treating it before it gets bigger and serious. Carcinoma enters in to the skin and affects tissues of body which later results in to a big disease. When you find out symptoms of carcinoma or any other type of cancer you need to see to (узнать) it if these symptoms are due to cancer or any other infections. Diagnosis of carcinoma will then be done by the doctors and treatments will begin accordingly. By considering medical history and other health issues doctors order for certain tests and physical exam. With the help of biopsy doctors find out whether patient is having cancer.

19. Study the text given above and say which statements given below are true and which are false. Correct the false ones using the text.

1. It is known that the tissue and organs of the human body are made up of microorganisms.

2. A lump develops when cells cease to divide.

3. With cancer screening and physical exam doctors are able to identify almost any symptoms of tumors.

4. Tumor`s treatment depends on its type and size.

5. There is only one kind of tumors.

6. Chemotherapy is one of the most popular treatments on tumor nowadays.

7. Cancer cells grow and develop only within one organ.

8. Small tumors always show particular signs and symptoms.

9. Unusual changes in weight, bleeding or discharge often accompany cancer diseases.

10. Biopsy helps doctors to find out whether a patient is having cancer or not.

20. Read the dialogue between a doctor and a patient and then find the correct answer to each question after the dialogue:

Making a Diagnosis

Doctor: Hi, Ann. How are you feeling today?

Patient: A bit better.

Doctor: That`s good to hear. Are you still feeling nauseous (тошнить)?

Patient: No, I haven`t felt sick to my stomach since you switched(поменять) my medication.

Doctor: Great. Say, your test results came in this morning.

Patient: It`s about time. Is it good news or bad?

Doctor: I guess it`s a bit of both. Which do you want first?

Patient: Let`s get the bad news over with.

Doctor: Okay. It looks like you are going to need surgery to remove the tumor(удалить опухоль) from your leg. After the operation you`re going to stay off (не наступать) your feet for at least 3 weeks. That means no soccer (футбол).

Patient: I was afraid you were going to say that.

Doctor: Now for the good news. The biopsy shows that the tumor is benign (доброкачественная), which means it is not cancerous. We`re going to take it out anyway just to be on the safe side (на всякий случай).

Patient: Wow, that`s a load off my mind (Мне полегчало). Thanks Doctor.

Doctor: Don`t get too excited. We still need to get to the bottom of all of this weight loss.

Patient: I`ve probably just been so worried about this lump(уплотнение).

Doctor: These things often are stress related, but we`re still going to do a few blood tests just to rule a few things out(исключать).

Patient: Things like what? Cancer?

Doctor: Actually, I`m thinking more along the lines of a food allergy.

1. Why did the woman have to switch medication?

a) It gave her a lump.

b) She was allergic to it.

c) It was upsetting her stomach.

d) It was too expensive.

2. What bad news does the doctor give the patient?

a) She has cancer.

b) She needs an operation.

c) She has a food allergy.

d) She needs a leg amputation.

3. What medical procedure did the patient already undergo?

1. an allergy test

2. major surgery

3. a blood transfusion

4. a biopsy

21. Read the text and then speak about the causes of cancer and the possible ways to diagnose it:

Causes of Cancer and Its Diagnosis

Cancer is caused by many contributing factors (способствующие факторы) collaborating (взаимодействующие) over a long period of time. The causes of cancer are difficult to identify because it takes years for these interdependent precipitating elements (ускоряющиеся элементы) to culminate (становиться) into a cancer diagnosis. But why do some people get cancer while others remain cancer free? Although in general, we cannot pinpoint (определить) a single cause of cancer, we can identify cancer-causing agents (carcinogens) and cancer-promoting activities (образ жизни, способствующий возникновению рака) that work together to encourage (способствовать) the development and spread of cancer. Cancer causes, which are as varied and individualized as cancer itself, can be controllable, uncontrollable, external or internal. Although causes of cancer are numerous, they can be placed into these basic categories.

• Genetics and family history (5 to 10 percent)

• Obesity (ожирение) and dietary habits (рацион питания) (35 percent)

• Environmental influences (25 percent)

• Lifestyle factors (30 percent)

Even in the case of genetic cancers, the activation of the gene may depend on a variety of factors. There is also a distinct difference between genetically caused cancers and cancers that arise from family history.

The success of therapy is primarily based on precise details. It is essential to figure out the place cancer is present as well as the kind of cancer cells found. The location that cancer first grows in the part of the body is known as primary cancer site (место первичного возникновения рака). It is very important and critical to know the primary site in diagnosis as well as treatment because it may assist figure out how the particular cancer will act.

The most typical primary cancer sites tend to be the skin, colon, prostate, lungs and breasts. The key methods used to identify if cancer is very likely to be found are listed below:

• A direct observation, such as signs and symptoms

• Advanced imaging screening technologies

• Laboratory medical tests

As a final point, medical diagnosis is determined by checking out the suspicious (подозрительный) tissue using a microscope. The suspicious tissue need to be taken out for this specific microscopic evaluation. This process is termed a biopsy. This verification (проверка) offers definitive proof required to prevent misdiagnosis. Evaluating of cancerous tissues samples can easily produce useful details about stage, grade, and type of cancer, which in turn will assist to figure out the very best plan for treatment.

22. Read the text and then answer the questions to the text:

Calcium May Prevent Colon Cancer

Eating more calcium might help prevent colon cancer by neutralizing the hazards of (нейтрализация вредного воздействия) a high-fat diet (питание с высоким содержанием жиров), a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine suggests. The researchers said their work was the first to show that calcium could reverse (изменить, перевернуть) changes in the lining (внутренний слой) of the colon that often foreshadow (предзнаменовать, предвещать) cancer.

Dr. Martin Lipkin, who directed the study at Memorial Cancer Center in New York, cautioned (предостерегать) that the findings were preliminary (предварительные) and that no broad changes ( значительные изменения) in diet could be recommended. But Dr. David Krichevsky of the Wister Institute in Philadelphia said: “Attempts to prevent colon cancer by eating more calcium yielded hopeful (многообещающие) results. This is confirmatory of (Это подтверждает) a lot of early data.”

Dr. Cedric Garland of the University of California, San Diego, who analyzing a large population survey recently found that people who drank a lot of milk appeared to have less colon cancer (меньше случаев заболевания раком) claims (требовать) to continue the research.

1. What hypothesis is suggested by the researches?

2. What findings are revealed by the researches?

3. What action of calcium in human body was observed?

4. What survey supports the preliminary data presented in the text?

23. Say why milk is useful; point out more facts in the text to illustrate the usefulness of milk.