English		TOPICAL JOURNEY
26		The History of Family
January 2013

FAMILY

1.(Sociology)

a.a primary social group consisting of parents and their offspring, the principal function of which is provision for its members

b.(as modifier) family quarrels a family unit

2.one’s wife or husband and one’s children

3.one’s children, as distinguished from one’s husband or wife

4.(Life Sciences & Allied Applications/Genetics) a group of persons related by blood; a group descended from a common ancestor

5.all the persons living together in one household

6.any group of related things or beings, esp. when scientifically categorized

7.(Life Sciences & Allied Applications/Biology) any of the taxonomic groups into which an order is divided and which contains one or more genera. Felidae (cat family) and Canidae (dog family) are two families of the order Carnivora

8.(Life Sciences & Allied Applications/Biology)

agroup of organisms of the same species living together in a community

9.(Linguistics) a group of historically related languages assumed to derive from one original language

10.(Law) Chiefly US an independent local group of the Mafia

11.(Mathematics) a group of curves or surfaces whose equations differ from a given equation only in the values assigned to one or more constants in each curve a family of concentric circles

12.(Physics/General Physics) the isotopes, collectively, that comprise a radioactive series

Collins English Dictionary

1.a. A fundamental social group in society typically consisting of one or two parents and their children.

b.Two or more people who share goals and values, have long-term commitments to one another, and reside usually in the same dwelling place.

2.All the members of a household under one roof.

3.A group of persons sharing common ancestry.

4.Lineage, especially distinguished lineage.

5.A locally independent organized crime unit, as of the Cosa Nostra.

6.a. A group of like things; a class.

b.A group of individuals derived from a common stock: the family of human beings.

7.(Biology) A taxonomic category of related organisms ranking below an order and above a genus.

8.(Linguistics) A group of languages descended from the same parent language, such as the Indo-European language family.

9.(Mathematics) A set of functions or surfaces that can be generated by varying the parameters of a general equation.

10.(Chemistry) A group of elements with similar chemical properties.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the

English Language, Fourth Edition

The history of the family concerns the sociocultural evolution of kinship groups from prehistoric to modern times. The family has a universal and basic role in all societies. Research on the history of the family crosses disciplines and cultures, aiming to understand the structure and function of a family from many viewpoints. For example, sociological, ecological or economical perspectives are used to view the interrelationships between individuals, their relatives and the historical time. The study of family history has shown that family systems are flexible, culturally diverse and adaptive to ecological and economical conditions.

FAMILY HISTORY SCIENCE

Early scholars of family history applied Darwin’s biological theory of evolution in their theory of the evolution of family systems. American anthropologist, Lewis H. Morgan, published Ancient Society in 1877, based on his theory of the three stages of human progress, from savagery through barbarism to civilization. Morgan’s book was the “inspiration for Friedrich Engels’ book”, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, published in 1884. Engels expanded Morgan’s hypothesis that economic factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society. Engels’s theory of resource control, and later that of Karl Marx, was used to explain the cause and effect of change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, when other sociological theories, particularly structural functionalism, gained acceptance.

The book, Centuries of Childhood by Philippe Ariès, published in France in 1960, had a great influence on the revival of the field of family history studies. Ariès used the analysis of demographic data to draw the conclusion that the concept of childhood was a concept that emerged in modern nuclear families.

Many sociologists used to believe that the nuclear family was the product of industrialization, but new evidence proposed by sociologist Peter Laslett suggests that the causality is reversed, and that industrialization was so effective in northwestern Europe specifically because the preexistence of the nuclear family fostered its development.

Family types of pre-industrial Europe belonged in two basic groups, the “simple household system” (the nuclear family), and the “joint family system” (the extended family).

A simple household system featured a relatively late age of marriage for both men and women, and the establishment of a separate household after the marriage or neolocality.

A joint family household system was characterized by earlier marriage for women, co-residence with the husband’s family or patrilocality, and co-residing of multiple generations. Many households consisted of unrelated servants and apprentices residing for periods of years, and at that time, belonging to the family. Due to shorter life expectancy and high mortality rates in the pre-industrialized world, much of the structure of a family depended on the average age of the marriage of women. Late marriages, as occurred in the simple household system, left little time for three-generation families to form. Conversely, in the joint family household system, early marriages allowed for multi-generational families to form.

The pre-industrial family had many functions. These included food production, landholding, regulation of inheritance, reproduction, socialization and education of its members. External roles allowed for participation in religion and politics. Social status was also strictly connected to one’s family.

Additionally, in the absence of government institutions, the family was the only resource to cope with sickness and aging. Because of the industrial revolution and new work and living conditions, families changed, transferring to public institutions responsibility for food production and the education and welfare of its aging and sick members. Post-industrial families became more private, nuclear, domestic, and based on the emotional bonding between husband and wife, and between parents and children.

The Origin of Family TOPICAL JOURNEY

family c.1400, “servants of a household,” from L. familia “household”, including relatives and servants, from famulus

“servant”, of unknown origin. The classical L. sense recorded in Eng. from

1545; the main modern sense of “those connected by blood” (whether living together or not) is first attested 1667.

English

27

January 2013

In most

c u l t u r e s

of the world,

the beginnings of family history is set in

creation myths. In Works and Days, the ancient Greek poet He-

siod, describes the epic destruction of four previous Ages of Man. The utopia that

was the Golden Age was eventually replaced by

the current Iron Age; a time when gods made man live

in “hopeless misery and toil.” Hesiod’s second poem Theogony, described the Greek gods’ relationships and family ties.

Ancient Greeks believed that among them, were descendants of gods who qualified for priesthood or other privileged social status.

The Judeo-Christian tradition originates in the Bible’s Book of Genesis. The first man and woman created by God gave rise to all of humanity. The Bible reflects

the patriarchal worldview and often refers to the practice of polygamy, a common marital practice in ancient times. In biblical times, men sought to prove their descent from the family of the prophet Moses in order to be accepted into the priesthood.

Roman families would include everyone within a household under the authoritarian role of the father, the pater familias; this included grown children and the slaves of the household. Children born outside of marriage, from common and legal concubinage, could not inherit the father’s property or name; instead, they belonged within the social group and family of their mothers.

Most ancient cultures like those of Assyria, Egypt and China, kept records of successors in the ruling dynasties to legitimize their power as divine in origin. Both the Inca king and the Egyptian Pharaoh, claimed that they were direct descendants of the Sun God. Many cultures, such as the Inca of South America, the Kinte of Africa and the Māori of New Zealand, did not have a written language and kept the history of their descent as an oral tradition.

Many cultures used other symbols to document their history of descent. The totem poles of indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest were the symbolic representation of their ancestors and a family identity, in addition to being ties with the spiritual world.

European nobility had long and well-documented kinship relationships, sometimes taking their roots in the Middle Ages. In 1538, King Henry VIII of England mandated that churches begin the record-keeping practice that soon spread throughout Europe. Britain’s Domesday Book from 1086, is one of the oldest European genealogy records. In ancient and medieval times, the history of one’s ancestors guaranteed religious and secular prestige.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

•How important is your family to you?

•How many people are in your immediate family? What about in your extended family?

•Who are you closest to in your family? Why do you think that is?

•Do you have any pets? Do they feel like part of the family?

•Are there any black sheep in your family? Can you tell us a little bit about them?

•Did your grandparents come from big families?

What did they do?

•Can you tell us one of your favourite family memories?

•What would you change about your childhood?

•How did your parents meet?

•Who used to comfort you when you were a child? Who used to punish you when you did something wrong?

•Who is the most successful person in your family? How did they become successful?

•Do you often argue with your mother or father?

What about?

•What’s the secret of a happy family life?

•Is spanking a good way to discipline children?

•Are friends more important than family? What do you think?

•“You can’t choose your family. Thank God you can choose your friends.” Do you agree?

•Who are your favourite cousins? Why do you feel close to them?

•What are the advantages and disadvantages of being an only child?

•“I don’t care how poor a man is; if he has family, he’s rich.” What do you think this quote means? Do you agree with it?

•Would you like to have a big family?

•Do you wish you could spend more time with your family? What would you do together?

•What did your family and you like to do together when you were a child?

•What was your favourite family game?

•If you had to name your first-born child after a member of your family, who would you choose? Why?

•Do you think people should adopt children from other countries?

See more on CD.

English TOPICAL JOURNEY

28

January 2013

American

AMERICAN FAMILY HISTORY

Though scores of books and thousands of articles have been written on the history, developments and changes of the American family – not a few of which disagree – here are some aspects in common accounts of this important and interesting story.

Colonial American Families

In colonial North America, the nuclear family was the most common family form. Families typically had five or more children, due in part to high infant mortality rates, with only a few children surviving beyond adolescence. Colonial families served several main purposes: they worked together; they schooled the children; they trained the children in a trade or skills, or merely how to survive; they passed on traditional beliefs; they punished wayward behavior; and they cared for each other when ill. (Many of these would later become the responsibility of the state.)

Industrialization (Mainly 19th Century)

The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization, resulting in a shift from home manufacturing to large-scale factory production. As this rapid transition took place, families lost many of their production functions. Instead, family members had to work outside the home to support their families. As a result, husbands and wives often began working in separate spheres of activity. The husband became the “breadwinner” by going out and working, while the wife stayed home and took care of the family.

Modern Family (1900–Present)

The “modern family” is often claimed to have originated in the 1830s: courtship became more open, marriages were often based on affection, and parents devoted more attention to children, also under the influence of romanticism. At the beginning of the 20th century, married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and compatibility in their relationships.

This led to more intimate and open relationships, along with more adolescent freedom. Later, changes in the family were strongly influenced by the poverty and unemployment of the Great Depression, which also forced many women into the workplace in order for at least one adult to have an income.

World War II significantly impacted the family. Due to the military draft, male workers were scarce in many industries and employers began to fill jobs with women, mainly in positions where they had not traditionally worked. Divorce rates also reached a new high during this period. Not only had many women found a new sense of independence, but culture was changing, including with the rise of feminism and even the development of reliable methods of birth control. Such changes caused some women to decide to end unhappy marriages.

The post-War 1950s saw a “baby boom” in America. This period was also called the “Golden ‘50s”, with families trying to make up lost time after the War. As a result, many families moved to the suburbs instead of residing in the cities, the number of two-income families began to increase, and grown children began to remain at home longer because of financial difficulties. Gradually, women began re-entering the workforce.

VOCABULARY ABOUT THE AMERICAN FAMILY

The traditional family structure in the United States is considered a family support system involving two married individuals providing care and stability for their biological offspring.

NUCLEAR FAMILY

Though the Oxford English Dictionary has a reference to the term from 1925, Merri- am-Webster dates the term back to 1947. Thus it is relatively new, although such family structures themselves date back thousands of years. The term “nuclear” is used in its general meaning to refer to a central entity or “nucleus” around which others collect.

In its most common usage, “nuclear family” refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother and their children (usually 2–3) all in one household dwelling. (One observer of families writes that the “nuclear family” has been considered the “traditional” family since the communist scare in the Cold War of the 1950s.) However, in recent decades, this two-parent, nuclear family has become less prevalent, and alternative family forms have become more common.

SINGLE PARENT

A single parent (also called lone parent or sole parent) is a parent who cares for one or more children without the direct help of the other biological parent. Historically, single-parent families often resulted from the death of a spouse. In the 20th century, with increasing divorce of married couples, there are more single-parents. The percentage of single-parent households increased by and after the turn of the century. This is partly due to the weakening of the sense of marriage as a “permanent” institution, so that individuals now consider leaving marriages more readily than they did in the past. Single parent families are also due to out-of-wedlock births (especially those due to unintended pregnancy) when the biological parents do not live together and/or choose not to.

STEP FAMILIES

Step-families are becoming more and more familiar in America due to the rise in divorce and remarriage rates, thus bringing two families together as step families.

EXTENDED FAMILY

The extended family consists of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. In some circumstances, the extended family comes to live with a nuclear family. Social historians find the extended family to have been much more prevalent in the colonial and US national period though to the closing of the 19th century.

UNWED PARTNERS/COHABITATION

Living as unwed partners is also known as cohabitation. Cohabitation in the United States is when two or more people in an intimate relationship live together and share a common domestic life, but are legally joined neither by marriage nor by a civil union. (Note: this is illegal in some states.)

The cohabitation lifestyle had become increasingly popular by the turn of the 20th century and thenafter. It is sometimes more convenient for couples not to get married, as it can be cheaper and simpler; and the rise of divorce rates in society has lead to marriage being less attractive for couples who are uncertain of their long-term plans.

DOMESTIC PARTNERSHIP

In the United States of America, a domestic partnership is a legally-recognized status in some cities, counties, states, and with some employers. This may be available to same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples. Though it is similar to marriage, a domestic partnership does not confer any of the rights (more than 1000) afforded to married couples by the federal government. Domestic partnerships in the United States are determined by each state or local jurisdiction, so there is no nationwide consistency on the rights, responsibilities, and benefits given to domestic partners.

Family

INFORMAL DOMESTIC PARTNERSHIP

Couples who live in localities without civil unions or domestic partnerships may voluntarily enter into a private, informal domestic partnership agreement, specifying their mutual obligations; however, this involves drawing up a number of separate legal documents, including wills, power of attorney, healthcare directives, child custody agreements, etc., and is best done with a lawyer’s advice.

HOUSEWIVES

A housewife is a married woman who does not work outside of the home for income, but stays and takes care of the home and children. This includes doing the cooking, washing, cleaning, etc. The roles of women working within the house have changed drastically as more women start to pursue careers.

“BREADWINNERS”

A breadwinner – a term from the early 19th century – is the main financial provider in the family. Historically, the husband has been the breadwinner, though during and after WWII that trend has changed.

STAY-AT-HOME DAD

A stay-at-home dad (alternatively, stay at home father, house dad, “SAHD”, househusband, or house-spouse) is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is the homemaker of the household. As families have evolved and changed, the practice of being a stay-at-home dad has become more common.

CHILDFREE AND CHILDLESSNESS

Childfree couples choose not to have children. These include young couples, who intend to have children later, as well as those who do not plan to have any children. Involuntary childlessness may be caused by infertility, medical problems, death of a child, or other factors.

ADOPTED CHILDREN

Adopted children are children that were given up at birth, abandoned, or were unable to be cared for by their biological parents. They may have been put into foster care before finding their permanent residence. There are several different types of adoption, the first being embryo adoption which is when a couple is having trouble conceiving a child and instead choose to have their sperm and egg conjoined outside the womb. Another type of adoption is international adoption which is simply the adopted children that come from foreign countries. Last is private adoption within the states, this being the most commonly recognized form of adoption.

SAME-SEX MARRIAGE

Same-sex parents are gay or lesbian couples that marry and choose to raise children. (This is now a very controversial legal and social question in many US states and cities.)

SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLDS

A single parent (also known as a solo parent) usually refers to a parent who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in the raising of the child or children, so that they are the primary caregiver, who is not living with a spouse or partner. Single-parent homes in America have become more common. With more children being born to unmarried couples and to couples whose marriages subsequently dissolve, children increasingly live with only one parent. The proportion of children living with a never-married parent has also grown, e.g. from 4% in 1960 to 42% in 2001. (Of all one parent families, more than three-quarters are mother-child families.)

PRIMARY CAREGIVER

The primary caregiver is the parent with whom the children have residency the majority of the time, if the parents are separated or divorced. Children live with their custodial parent and have visitation or secondary residence with their noncustodial parent. In western society in general, following separation, the primary caregiver is usually the mother, with the secondary caregiver usually the father.

MALE/FEMALE ROLES

The traditional “father” and “mother” roles of the nuclear family have become blurred over time. Because of the women’s movement’s push for women to engage in traditionally masculine pursuits in society, and as women choose to sacrifice their child-bearing years to establish their careers, the traditional roles of fathers as the “breadwinners” and mothers as the “caretakers” have become less and less fixed and unquestioned.

TV AND STEREOTYPES OF AMERICAN FAMILIES

The television industry helped create a stereotype of the American nuclear family. During the era of the baby boomers, families became a popular social topic, especially on television. Over the years family shows such as Father Knows Best, Ozzie and Harriet, The Cosby Show, Married with Children, All in the Family, Leave It to Beaver, The Jeffersons, and Good Times have portrayed different families growing up in America. These nuclear families have changed as the years passed and have become more realistic, showing singleparent and divorced families, as well as older singles. Television shows that show singleparent families include Half & Half, One on One, Murphy Brown, and Gilmore Girls.

TOPICAL JOURNEY English

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January 2013

BABY BOOM(ERS)

The phrase baby boom has been used since the late nineteenth century to refer to a noticeable temporary increase in the birth rate. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first recorded use of “baby boomer” is from a 1970 article in the Washington Post.

Various authors delimit the baby boom period differently. The United States Census Bureau considers a baby boomer to be someone born during the birth boom between 1946 and 1964.

The term “baby boomer” is disputed in its exact meaning among different groups, organizations, individuals and scholars, and they vary in views of what characterizes a baby boomer socially and culturally. It is difficult to generalize about such a large population, but many have attempted to determine the broad cultural similarities and historical impact of the generation, and the term has gained widespread popular usage.

Baby boomers are associated with a rejection or redefinition of traditional values; however, many commentators have disputed the extent of that rejection, noting the widespread continuity of values with older and younger generations. In

North America (and Europe), boomers are widely associated with privilege, as many grew up in a time of widespread government subsidies in post-war housing and education, and increasing affluence.

As a group, they were the wealthiest, most active, and most physically fit generation to that time, and among the first to grow up genuinely expecting the world to improve with time. They were also the generation that received peak levels of income, therefore they could reap the benefits of abundant levels of food, apparel, retirement programs, and sometimes even worry about a “midlife crisis”.

One feature of boomers was that they tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from those that had come before. In the 1960s, as the relatively large numbers of young people became teenagers and young adults, they created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort, and the life and change they were bringing about in society and culture. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was also a relatively new phenomenon.

Boomers – ca. 1950 at the married student

Compiled by Stephen Lapeyrouse

housing site on the Moorhead State campus.