- •4 A/anand one
- •5 A little/a few and little/few
- •E a fear/fears,a hope/hopes,a suspicion/suspicions
- •H elder, eldest; older, oldest
- •Many and much
- •Sense: clever,foolish,idiotic*,intelligent,sensible,silly,stupid.
- •Due, due to, owing to, certain, sure, bound, confident
- •Afraid (of), ashamed (of), sorry (for or about)
- •Far, farther/farthest and further/furthest
- •Much, more, most
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Away, everywhere, here, nowhere, somewhere, there etc.
- •Always, continually, frequently,occasionally,often, once,twice,periodically,repeatedly, sometimes, usuallyetc.
- •D never, ever
- •Fairly and rather
- •Hardly, scarcely, barely
- •5 All, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any, no, none
- •Neither, either
- •Neither . . . Nor, either ... Or
- •51 Someone, somebody, something,anyone, anybody,anything,no one, nobody,nothing
- •Someone/somebody/something,anyone/anybody/anything,noone/nobody/nothing, everyone/everybody/everything and the adverbs somewhere, anywhere, nowhere,everywhere can be followed by else:
- •One . . . Another/other (s), some . . . Other (s)
- •One another and each other
- •Who,whom
- •Which,what
- •Use of they/them/theirwith neither/either, someone/everyone/no one etc.
- •A These are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
- •Defining relative clauses
- •Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows:
- •85 Whoever, whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •Whoever,whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •By, before
- •On time,intime,ingoodtime
- •On arrival,onarriving,onreaching,ongettingto
- •At the beginning/end, in the beginning/end, at first/at last
- •91 Time: from, since, for, during a from, since and for
- •B during and for
- •To and till/until
- •At, in; in, into; on, onto
- •In and into
- •On and onto
- •Above, over, under, below,beneath etc.
- •D beside, between,behind,in front of, opposite
- •The most important of these are above, about, across,along,before, behind,below, besides, by, down, in, near, off, on, over, past, round, since, through, under, up:
- •Am,is, are,have,had,will and would
- •11 Be, have, do
- •There is/are, there was/wereetc.
- •Can/amable,could/wasableA can and beable
- •Have to
- •15 Must,have,willandshould
- •Interrogative
- •Ifandincase
- •Agree that . . . Expresses anopinion.
- •A assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose, understand
- •A can,do, may, must,shall,will:
- •С feel, hear, see and watch:
- •1 With appear, happen,pretend,seem
- •D advise,allow,permit,recommend Eitneeds/requires/wants
- •D With advise,allow,permit,recommend
- •Regret,remember, forget
- •Go on, stop,try,used(to)
- •A catch/find:
- •Go, come, spend, waste,be busy a goand come
- •Speak to etc.:
- •В will/would you* (please):
- •В will/would/could you? would youliketo?
- •С if I were you I should/would:
- •29 Care, like, love, hate, prefer, wish
- •294 Care and like
- •В wouldcare andwouldlike
- •By would enjoy:
- •297 Wouldrather/soonerandprefer/would prefer
- •Wish,want andwouldlike
- •В let him/them
- •С let there be
- •Must andneedn't
- •Must not
- •С needn't
- •Besides, however,nevertheless, otherwise,so,therefore, still,yet, though
- •For and because
- •As meaningwhen/whileorbecause/since
- •As, when,whileusedto meanalthough,but,seeingthat
- •337 Incase andlest a in case
- •Be goingto:
- •These papers
- •Child up)
В let him/them
In theory7 let him/them expresses a command. But very often the speaker has no authority over the person who is to obey the command: 'It's not my business,' said the postman. 'Let the government do something about
it.'
Here, the speaker is not issuing a command but expressing an obligation. Sentences of this type are therefore normally reported by ought/should:
He said that it wasn't hisbusinessandthat thegovernment ought i to/shoulddosomethingabout it.
Sometimes, however, let him/them does express a command. It is then usually reported by say + be + infinitive (see 321):
'Letthe boys clear up thismess,' said theheadmaster= Theheadmastersaid that the boys were to clear up the mess.'Let theguards bearmed,' he ordered= He orderedthat theguardsshouldbearmed.
3 Sometimes let him/them is more a suggestion than a command. In such cases it is usually reported by
suggest, or say + should (see 289):
Shesaid,'Letthem go to theirconsul.He'IIbeableto help them' = Shesuggestedtheir/them goingto their consul etc. or Shesuggestedthat they shouldgoto theirconsul or Shesaid that they shouldgoto theirconsul.
4 let him/them can also indicate the speaker's indifference:
'Theneighbours willcomplain,' said Ann.
'Let them (complain),' said Tom = Tom expressedindifference or
Tom said hedidn't mind(ifthey complained).
С let there be
Here the speaker could be ordering, advising, urging or begging: 'Let there be no reprisals,' said the widow of the murdered man = The widow urged/begged that there should be no reprisals.
D let is also an ordinary verb meaning allow/permit:
'Lethim comewith us,mother;I'lltakecareofhim,'Isaid =
/ asked my motherto lethim comewith usand promisedto takecare ofhim.
323 Exclamations and yes and no
A Exclamations usually become statements in indirect speech. The exclamation mark disappears.
Exclamations beginning What (a) ... or How . . . can be reported (a) by exclaim/say that:
Hesaid,'Whatadreadfulidea!'or 'Howdreadful'.' = Heexclaimedthat it was a dreadful idea/was dreadful
or (b) by give an exclamation of delight/disgust/horror/relief/ surprise etc.
Alternatively, if the exclamation is followed by an action we can use the construction (c) with an exclamation of delight/disgust etc. +
he/she etc. + verb.
Other types of exclamation, such as Good! Marvellous! Splendid! Heavens! Oh! Ugh! etc. can be reported as in (b) or (c) above:
'Good!' heexclaimed=
He gave an exclamation ofpleasure/satisfaction. 'Ugh!' sheexclaimed,and turned theprogrammeoff =
With anexclamationofdisgustshe turned theprogrammeoff.
Note also:
He said,'Thankyou!' = Hethankedme.
Hesaid,'Cursethisfog!'=Hecursed thefog. Hesaid,'Goodluck!' = He wishedmeluck.
He said, 'HappyChristmas!' = He wishedmea happyChristmas. Hesaid,'Congratulations!' = Hecongratulatedme.
Hesaid,'Liar!'=Hecalled mealiar. He said,'Damn!'etc.= He swore.
The noticesaid:WELCOME TOWALES'.=
Thenoticewelcomed visitorsto Wales.
В yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb:
He said,'Canyouswim?' and 1said 'No' =
He asked (me)ifIcouldswim and Isaid Icouldn't.
Hesaid,'Willyou havetimeto do it?'and Isaid 'Yes'=
He asked ifIwouldhavetimeto doit and Isaid that Iwould.
Indirect speech: mixed types
Direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command, command + statement, or all three together.
A Normally each requires its own introductory verb: 7 don't know the way. Do you?' he asked =
He said hedidn't knowtheway and asked herifshedid/ifshe knewit.'Someone'scoming,' hesaid.'Getbehind thescreen' = Hesaid that someonewascomingandtold meto getbehindthescreen.
Т т goingshopping.CanI getyouanything?' shesaid = Shesaid she wasgoingshoppingand askedifshecould getmeanything.
I canhardly heartheradio,' hesaid.'Couldyouturnit up?' = Hesaid hecouldhardly heartheradioand asked
herto turn it up.
В But sometimes, when the last clause is a statement which helps to explain the first, we can use as instead of a second introductory verb:
'You'dbetterwear acoat.It'svery cold out,' hesaid = He advisedmeto wear a coat as it was very cold out.
'You'dbetternot walk acrosstheparkalone.Peoplehave been muggedthere,' hesaid=
He warned her not to walk acrosstheparkaloneaspeoplehad been muggedthere.
С Sometimes the second introductory verb can be a participle:
'Please,please,don't drinktoomuch!Rememberthat you'll haveto drivehome,' shesaid = She beggedhim not to drinktoomuch,remindinghim that he'd haveto drivehome.
'Let'sshop on Friday. Thesupermarketwill be very crowded on Saturday,' she said =
She suggested shopping on Friday, pointing out that the supermarket would be very crowded on Saturday. (as could be used in both these examples.)