- •4 A/anand one
- •5 A little/a few and little/few
- •E a fear/fears,a hope/hopes,a suspicion/suspicions
- •H elder, eldest; older, oldest
- •Many and much
- •Sense: clever,foolish,idiotic*,intelligent,sensible,silly,stupid.
- •Due, due to, owing to, certain, sure, bound, confident
- •Afraid (of), ashamed (of), sorry (for or about)
- •Far, farther/farthest and further/furthest
- •Much, more, most
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Away, everywhere, here, nowhere, somewhere, there etc.
- •Always, continually, frequently,occasionally,often, once,twice,periodically,repeatedly, sometimes, usuallyetc.
- •D never, ever
- •Fairly and rather
- •Hardly, scarcely, barely
- •5 All, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any, no, none
- •Neither, either
- •Neither . . . Nor, either ... Or
- •51 Someone, somebody, something,anyone, anybody,anything,no one, nobody,nothing
- •Someone/somebody/something,anyone/anybody/anything,noone/nobody/nothing, everyone/everybody/everything and the adverbs somewhere, anywhere, nowhere,everywhere can be followed by else:
- •One . . . Another/other (s), some . . . Other (s)
- •One another and each other
- •Who,whom
- •Which,what
- •Use of they/them/theirwith neither/either, someone/everyone/no one etc.
- •A These are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
- •Defining relative clauses
- •Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows:
- •85 Whoever, whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •Whoever,whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •By, before
- •On time,intime,ingoodtime
- •On arrival,onarriving,onreaching,ongettingto
- •At the beginning/end, in the beginning/end, at first/at last
- •91 Time: from, since, for, during a from, since and for
- •B during and for
- •To and till/until
- •At, in; in, into; on, onto
- •In and into
- •On and onto
- •Above, over, under, below,beneath etc.
- •D beside, between,behind,in front of, opposite
- •The most important of these are above, about, across,along,before, behind,below, besides, by, down, in, near, off, on, over, past, round, since, through, under, up:
- •Am,is, are,have,had,will and would
- •11 Be, have, do
- •There is/are, there was/wereetc.
- •Can/amable,could/wasableA can and beable
- •Have to
- •15 Must,have,willandshould
- •Interrogative
- •Ifandincase
- •Agree that . . . Expresses anopinion.
- •A assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose, understand
- •A can,do, may, must,shall,will:
- •С feel, hear, see and watch:
- •1 With appear, happen,pretend,seem
- •D advise,allow,permit,recommend Eitneeds/requires/wants
- •D With advise,allow,permit,recommend
- •Regret,remember, forget
- •Go on, stop,try,used(to)
- •A catch/find:
- •Go, come, spend, waste,be busy a goand come
- •Speak to etc.:
- •В will/would you* (please):
- •В will/would/could you? would youliketo?
- •С if I were you I should/would:
- •29 Care, like, love, hate, prefer, wish
- •294 Care and like
- •В wouldcare andwouldlike
- •By would enjoy:
- •297 Wouldrather/soonerandprefer/would prefer
- •Wish,want andwouldlike
- •В let him/them
- •С let there be
- •Must andneedn't
- •Must not
- •С needn't
- •Besides, however,nevertheless, otherwise,so,therefore, still,yet, though
- •For and because
- •As meaningwhen/whileorbecause/since
- •As, when,whileusedto meanalthough,but,seeingthat
- •337 Incase andlest a in case
- •Be goingto:
- •These papers
- •Child up)
Must not
I must not usually remains unchanged, you/he must not remains unchanged or is expressed as a negative command (see 320-1): He said, 'You mustn't tell anyone' = He said that she mustn 't tell/wasn 't to tell anyone or He told her not to tell anyone.
С needn't
needn't can remain unchanged and usually does. Alternatively it can change to didn't have to/wouldn't have to
just as must changes to had to/would have to:
He said,'Youneedn't wait' = Hesaid thatIneedn'twait.
I said,'Ifyoucanlendmethemoney I needn't goto thebank =
/ said that ifhecouldlendmethemoney I needn't/wouldn't haveto goto thebank.
Hesaid,'Ineedn'tbein theofficetillten tomorrowmorning' =
Hesaid thatheneedn 't/didn 'thaveto bein theofficetillten thenext morning.
need I/you/he? behaves exactly in the same ways as must I/you/he? i.e. it normally becomes had to: 'Need I finish my pudding?' asked the small boy = The small boy asked if he had to finish his pudding. 32 Conjunctions
Co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, both . . . and, or, either ... or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also
These join pairs of nouns/adjectives/adverbs/verbs/phrases/clauses: Heplayssquash andrugby.Imakethe paymentsand keep the accounts. He works quickly and/but accurately. He is smallbut strong. She is intelligent but lazy. Wecamein first but (we) didn'twinthe race. Bothmenandwomenwere drafted into the army.Ring Tom or Bill.Shedoesn 'tsmokeor drink.Hecan't(either) read orwrite.You can (either)walk up ortakethecablecar. He canneitherread norwrite.Notonly menbut alsowomenwere chosen.
Besides, however,nevertheless, otherwise,so,therefore, still,yet, though
These adverbs/conjunctions can join clauses or sentences and are then often known as 'conjuncts'. But they can also, with the exception of nevertheless and therefore (conjuncts), be used in other ways. Their position will vary according to how they are used.
A besides (preposition) means 'in addition to'. It precedes a noun/pronoun/gerund:
Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden. besides (conjunct) means 'in addition'. It usually precedes its clause, but can follow it:
I can't go now; I'm too busy. Besides, my passport is out of date. moreover could replace besides here in more formal English. anyway or in any case could be used here in more informal English:
Anyway,my passport'sout ofdate.
В however (adverb of degree, see 41) precedes its adjective/adverb: You couldn 't earn much, however hard you worked.
however (conjunct) usually means 'but'. It can precede or follow its clause or come after the first word or phrase:
I'llofferit to Tom.However,hemaynot want it or
He may not wantit howeveror Tom,however,may not wantit or
//, however, hedoesn't wantit.. .
But when two contrasting statements are mentioned, however can mean 'but/nevertheless/all the same':
They hadn't trainedhard,but/however/nevertheless/all thesametheywon or they won, however/nevertheless/allthesame.
(See also 329.)
С otherwise (adverb of manner) usually comes after the verb:
It must be used in a well-ventilated room. Used otherwise (= in a different way) it could be harmful. otherwise
(conjunct) means 'if not/or else':
We must be early; otherwise we won't get a seat. or could also be used here in colloquial English: We must be early or (else) we won't get a seat.
D so (adverb of degree) precedes its adjective/adverb:
It was so hot that. . . They ran so fast that. . . so (conjunct) precedes its clause:
Our cases were heavy,so wetookataxi.
E therefore can be used instead of so in formal English.
It can come at the beginning of the clause or after the first word or phrase; or before the main verb:
There is fog at Heathrow; the plane, therefore, has beendiverted/theplane hasthereforebeen diverted/therefore
the plane has been diverted.
F still and yet can be adverbs of time (see 37):
The children are still up. They haven't had supper yet. still and yet (conjunct) come at the beginning of clauses. still means 'admitting that/nevertheless'.
yet means 'in spite of that/all the same/nevertheless'.
You aren'trich;still,you could do something to help him.Theyareuglyand expensive;yetpeoplebuy them.
G though/although normally introduce clauses of concession (see 340):
Though/Although they're expensive, people buy them. though (but not although) can also be used to link two main clauses. though used in this way means 'but' or 'yet' and is placed sometimes at the beginning but more often at the end of its clause: He says he 'II pay, though I don't think he will or He says he'll pay; I don't think he will, though.
328 Subordinating conjunctions: if, that, though/although, unless, when etc.
Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate adverb or noun clauses and are dealt with in the chapters on the different types of clause.
See chapter 21 for conditional clauses, chapter 33 for purpose clauses, chapter 34 for adverb clauses of reason, result, concession, comparison and time, and chapter 35 for noun clauses.
Some conjunctions have more than one meaning and may introduce more than one type of clause.
Pairs and groups of conjunctions which are sometimes confused with each other or with other parts of speech are dealt with below.
though/although and in spite of (preposition phrase), despite (preposition)
Two opposing or contrasting statements, such as He had no qualifications and He got the job, could be combined as follows:
A With but, however or nevertheless as shown in 327 above: He had no qualifications but he got the job. He had no qualifications; however he got the job/he got the job, however. He had no qualifications; nevertheless he got the job.
В With though/although:
He got thejobalthoughhe had noqualifications.Althoughhe had noqualificationshe got thejob.
С With in spite of/despite + noun/pronoun/gerund:
In spiteofhavingnoqualificationshe got thejob. He got thejobin spiteofhavingnoqualifications.
despite = in spite of. It is chiefly used in newspapers and in formal English:
Despitethesevereweatherconditionsallthecarscompleted the course.
D Note that though/although requires subject + verb:
Although it was windy . . . and that in spite of/despite requires noun/pronoun or gerund:
In spite of the wind . . . Some more examples:
Althoughit smelt horrible. . . = Inspiteofthehorriblesmell . . .Althoughit was dangerous . . . = In spiteof the danger . . . Though he wasinexperienced. . . = Inspite ofhisinexperience/hisbeinginexperienced. . .