18. What is translation ranking? Give definitions and examples

Translation ranking- translation; translated work; moving; shift; recalculation of some measures or other units; forward movement; broadcast; conversion from one unit to another; recalculation of some other measures; Arrangement; transfer; translation; incarnation

19. What translation ranks do you know? Give definitions and examples

Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

1. The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation);  

2. The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation);  

3. The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).

20. What relationship is there between the approaches to translation and types of translation?

 Basic problem: translations are assumed to be somehow “the same” as the original, but they are obviously different. What does “equivalence” mean?

 • Six steps in the debate:

 Early Bible translation: equivalence must be understood as sameness. Translation must be possible.

Modern semiotics: translation is always possible (depending on what you mean by translation....)

 The problem of untranslatability. Can meaning be separated from form? Absolutely the “same” meaning is (usually / often / sometimes ) impossible. The claim that there are no stable meanings (cf. deconstruction, postmodernism).

 Equivalence is better understood as similarity, relevant similarity, not sameness or identity. Two texts can be “similar” in very many ways.

 There are several basic types of equivalence: concerning form, meaning, style, desired effect...

 Each translation task requires its own hierarchy of equivalence: what are the priorities for this particular translation? Depends on aim and context.

 Conclusion: equivalence is produced by the translator, it is claimed. This claim may or may not be accepted by the client, by readers.

21.What is translation equivalence? Define it.

Translational equivalence is the similarity between a word (or expression) in one language and its translation in another. This similarity results from overlapping ranges of reference.

A translation equivalent is a corresponding word or expression in another language.

Examples : Alamblak (Papua New Guinea), English

 

Here is an example of translational equivalence between Alamblak (Papua New Guinea) and English:

 

An English speaker might analyze the Alamblak word with two meanings:1)tomorrow,2)yesterday;

The two English words are simple translational equivalents. However, there is another word in Alamblak that can be analyzed as follows:

day before yesterday day after tomorrow

22. What helps to find proper translation equivalents? Give definitions and examples

23.What is a unit of translation? What are the optimal units for practical translation?

Constant units of Translation are:

Situational click,terms,proverbs,sayings,set-expressions

Practical translation to provide translators with a thorough introduction to the basis of how languages express information, how this varies across languages and how to apply this knowledge in the translation of texts. Presonal and key skills:  Demonstrate the ability to produce, to deadline, a substantial translation (written text) of a complex nature and present it to the required professional standards and with a commentary justifying their decisions.

 4. The expertise acquired in translating a range of text types will be extendible to specific domains for the purposes of further professional development.

24.What is full and partial translation equivalence? Give definitions.

When the parameters for all items in the measurement model are equal across groups, we speak of full measurement equivalence. However, Byrne et al. (1989) have argued that full equivalence is not a necessary condition for comparisons to be valid. If at least two items per latent variable (namely, the item that is fixed at unity to identify the model and one other item) are equivalent, comparisons can be validly made across countries and time points. Thus, partial equivalence does not necessarily require the invariance of all loadings and intercepts. This idea is also supported by Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998)

№25 What are syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of translation equivalence ? Which of them is the most important for adequate translation? Semantic translation is the process of using semantic information to aid in the translation of data in one representation or data model to another representation or data model. Semantic translation takes advantage of semantics that associate meaning with individual data elements in one dictionary to create an equivalent meaning in a second system.

There are three types of Semantic equivalence:

* Class Equivalence - indicating that class or "concepts" are equivalent. For example: "Person" is the same as "Individual"

* Property Equivalence - indicating that two properties are equivalent. For example: "PersonGivenName" is the same as "FirstName"

* Instance Equivalence - indicating that two individual instances of objects are equivalent. For example: "Dan Smith" is the same person as "Daniel Smith"

Semantics study provides theories, approaches or methods in understanding‘meaning’ that are very useful in translation. Some problems related to meaning are oftenfaced by translators in translating a text. According to Catford (1965: 94)untranslatability occurs when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of thesituation into the contextual meaning of the TL text.

Pragmatics of translation is a wide notion which covers not only pragmatic meaning of a word, but some problems connected with various levels of understanding by speech acts communicants of certain meanings or messages, depending on linguistic or paralinguistic factors [6, 214], that is, background knowledge. A well-known linguist Konissarov points out that pragmatic aspect of translation should be considered from three points. One of them is conveying pragmatic meaning of words [2, 101]. This point chiefly pertains to the translation of national realia and equivalent lacking words that is, various names.

The term pragmatic meaning of a word is not yet fully investigated. But some linguists point out that the pragmatic component of the word meaning, which is realized in various kinds of emotive and stylistic connotations, is individually-occasional or collectively used meanings [3, 43-44]. They reflect the conditions of a language unit use, the conditions such as situation and place of communication, subject and purpose of communication; social, ethnic, and individual peculiarities of communicants, their attitude towards one another [1, 38-39] Irrespective of the fact whether pragmatic aspects are singled out into a certain type of a word meaning or whether it is considered among other components of its meaning, pragmatic meaning, which is fixed in a word, plays an important role and its retention ensures complete communicative adequacy of translation to the original.

Pragmatics as a linguistic term means the analysis of language in terms of the situational context, within which utterances are made, including the knowledge and beliefs of the speaker and the relation between speaker and listener [5, 1518]. Pragmatic information is actualized in translating the equivalent–lacking lexical units, first of all personal names, geographical names, national realia by way of transcription and transliteration. But in some cases, while translating the names of states, boroughs, counties and provinces explication of their implicit information is needed. For example: Georgia – штат Джорджія (США) (In case the context indicates that the author writes or speaks about the USA)

The role of semantic, syntactic and pragmatic relations for adequate translation can hardly be overestimated. Semiotic (the science investigating the general properties of sign system) distinguishes the following types of relations: semantic (sign to object), syntactic (sign to sign) and pragmatic (sign to man). One of the most essential requirements imposed on translation is that two text (the source text and the target text) should be semantically equivalent. In other words, they should be characterized by equivalent sets of relationship between the linguistic signs and their denotation (referents). The goal of translation is to produce a text bearing the same extra linguistic situation as the original. Semantic equivalent of message does not necessarily imply the semantic identity of linguistic sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only those made up of semantically identical signs (as, for instance He lives in London – Він живе у Лондоні) but also utterances comprising different sets of signs which in their totality yield the same type of relationship to the extra linguistic word denotating the same extra linguistic situation, for example: Wet paint! – Обережно! Пофарбовано! Semantic relations affect translation both in the initial stage of analysis and in producing the target language text.

As distinct from semantic relations, syntactic relations are important only at the stage of analysis since relations between linguistic signs are essential for their semantic interpretation [3, 50]. But although they may be occasionally preserved in translation, the translator does not set himself this goal. Very often syntactically nonequivalent utterances prove to be semantically equivalent: He was considered invincible – Його вважали непереможним.

Pragmatic relations are superimposed on semantic relations and play an equally important role in analyzing the original text and in producing an equivalent text in the target language [1, 210].

№26 What are the basic translation devices? Give definitions and examples

asic translation devices are: 1.partitioning 2.integration 3.transposition 4.replacement 5.addition 6.omission These devices are replied as tools to ensure adequate translation. In translation of poetry a translator is bound to use a more or less standard set of devices, which helps to convey the ideas of the source text in the best possible way. Although the choice of particular devices depends on the text type genre and style as well as on the translation variety (oral, written, consecutive, simultaneous). Partitioning is either replacing in translation of the source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one. Integration is an opposite of partitioning. It implies combining two or more source sentences into one target sentence. Елена Филиппьева любит все свои роли, если какую-нибудь из них неисполняет, начинает по ней скучать. - Elena Philipyeva loves her roles and even misses them should too much time pass without performing them. Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner patitioning intransaltion meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (subject, predicate, and object) as compound with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intend. E.g. ниоткуда появились ведерки из под патоки – malasses buckets appeared from nowhere. Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological lexical and syntactic levels of the language, when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms. He used to come to Italy each spring - обычно он приезжал в италиюкаждую весну. The following basic types of replacements are observed in English - Russian translation: 1.replacement of noun number and verb tense and voice paradigms. e.g. replacing singular form by plural and vise verse; replacement of active voice by passive? Replacement of future by present; past by present

2.replacement of parts of speech (the most common is replacing Russian nouns by English verbs, when translating into English) 3.replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative one is an efficient device called antonymous translation Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language. (According “to Times” – по данным газеты Таймс. Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from the view point of a target language structural patterns and stylistics. Omission is the opposite of addition - E.g. предложение былоотвергнуто – the proposal was rejected and repudiated

№27 What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give examples. Describe transpositions as a variety of inner partitioning.

Antonymic translation is rendering of English words and statements by norms of opposite antonymic words and statements.

Partitioning – is either replacing in translation of a source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complete target one.

Inner partitioning is when a simple sentence is changed into compound.Outer partitioning is when one sentence is substituted by more sentences.

Integration – implies combing two or more source sentences into one target sentence.Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation that means a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by the peculiarities of the syntax or by the communication intent.

e.g. The flight will be boarded at the gate 17 in 15 minutes.

№28. What is replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replacements in practical translation? Give examples.

Translation is the replacement of a text in

one language by a replacement of an

equivalent text in a second language.

(Meetham and Hudson, 1972: 713)

Translation is the replacement of textual

material in one language (SL) by equivalent

textual material in another language (TL).

(Catford, 1965: 20)

On the other hand, functionalists view translation

differently:

Translation is the production of a functional

target text maintaining a relationship with a

given source text that is specified according

to the intended or demanded function of the

target text.

(Nord, in shutttleworth and Cowie,2007:182)