10. Знайдіть до кожного терміна, що ліворуч, визначення.

a) employment 1)A fixed amount of money paid to someone every month for the job.

b) salary 2)Working independently for several different organizations.

c) freelance 3)The state of having paid work.

d) profession 4)A job which needs a high standard of education and special training.

e) appoint 5) Money needed to finance a business.

f) capital 6) To choose someone for a job or responsibility.

g) employ 7) To give work to someone.

Writing

11.Прочитайте вислови та прислів’я. Перекладіть та напишіть погоджуєтесь ви з ними чи ні. Поясніть свою позицію.

“Hard work never killed a man… the harder your people work, the happier and healthier they will be”. David Oligvy

“It is the responsibility of the leadership and the management to give opportunities and put demands on people which enable them to grow as human beings in their work environment”.

Sir John Harvey-Jones

“Necessity is the mother of invention”.

12. Резюме зазвичай відсилається разом із супровідним листом (covering letter). Мета цього листа – привернути увагу потенційного роботодавця до ключових пунктів вашого резюме, переконати, що саме ви є тим працівником, якого шукають. Прочитайте інформацію про те, як правильно скласти супровідний лист та напишіть свій власний у відповідь на оголошення про вакансію:

A big international company

Is looking for a

Personal assistant

The candidate:

• native Ukrainian with fluent English, good command of German will be a plus;

• 21-28 years old;

• 2+ years experience in a similar position;

• Computer skills (Windows 95, Excel, Power Point);

• Strong communication skills;

• Non-smoker

Start your covering letter with “Dear Mr/Ms”. Then there should be about four paragraphs:

1. Write how you’ve heard about the job.

2. Describe your practical work experience, include details of experience or relevant skills.

3. State your enthusiasm and interest.

4. Say that you are available for interview.

Наступні вирази використовують під час опису власних позитивних якостей для влаштування на роботу:

I have a profound experience in…, I’m a fast learner, I’m a good team member, I love working with people/figures/computer…, My previous duties included…, I would like to draw your attention to…

Заключна частина:

I look forward to hearing from you, I’m available for the interview any time between 10 a.m. and 5 p.m.

Речення, які частіше використовують наприкінці:

Thank you for your time and consideration, yours faithfully/sincerely

Rendering an article. (переказ статті/тексту).

1. Дана стаття – the given article

2. Тема – the theme (subject-matter)

3. Основна проблема – the main problem

4. Мета – the purpose

5. Проблеми, пов’язані з – problems relating to; problems of

6. Аналогіно – similary; likewise

7. Тому, в результаті – hence; therefore

8. Навпаки – on the contrary

9. Крім того – besides; also; again; in addition; furthermore

10. Спочатку – at first

11. Далі – next; further; then

12. В кінці - finally

13. Коротко – in short; in brief

Мета написання статті/тексту:

1. The object (purpose) of this paper (article) is to present (to discuss, to describe, to show, to develop, to give)…

2. The paper (article) puts forward the idea (attempts to determine)…

Питання, що піднімаються в статті:

1. The paper (article) discusses some problems relating to (deals with some aspects of, considers the problem of, presents the basic theory, provides information, reviews the basic principles of)…

2. The paper (article) is concerned with (is devoted to)…

Початок статті/тексту:

1. The paper (article) begins with a short discussion on (deals firstly with the problem of)…

2. The first paragraph deals with…

3. First (at first, at the beginning) the author points out that (notes that, describes)…

Перехід до переказу наступної частини:

1. Then follows a discussion on…

2. Then the author goes on to the problem of…

3. The next (following) paragraph deals with (presents, discusses, describes)…

4. After discussing… the author turns to…

5. Next (further, then) the author tries to (indicates that, explains that)…

6. It must be emphasized that (should be noted that, is evident that, is clear that, is interesting to note that)…

Кінець переказу статті/тексту:

1. The final paragraph states (describes, ends with)…

2. The conclusion is that the problem is…

3. The author concludes that (summarizes the)…

4. To sum up (to summarize, to conclude) the author emphasizes (points out, admits) that…

5. Finally (in the end) the author admits (emphasizes) that…

Висловлювання власної думки:

In my opinion (to my mind, I think)…

The paper (article) is interesting (not interesting), of importance (of little importance), valuable (invaluable), up-to-date (out-of-date), useful (useless)…

Тексти для домашнього читання

Text1.

In economics, factors of production are the resources employed to produce goods and services. They facilitate production but do not become part of the product (as with raw materials) or are significantly transformed by the production process (as with fuel used to power machinery). To 19th century economists, the factors of production were land (natural resources, gifts from nature), labor (the ability to work), and capital goods (human-made tools and equipment). Recent textbooks have added entrepreneurship and "human capital" (labor's education and skills). "Land" can include ecosystems while sometimes the overall state of technology is seen as a factor of production. In any event, it is the scarcity of the factors of production which poses humanity's economic problem, often forcing us to choose between competing goals. The number and definition of factors varies, depending on theoretical purpose, empirical emphasis, or school of economics. Differences are most stark when it comes to deciding which factor is the most important. For example, in the Austrian view -- often shared by neoclassical and other "free market" economists -- the primary factor of production is the time of the entrepreneur, which, when combined with other factors, determines the amount of output of a particular good or service. However, other authors argue that "entrepreneurship" is nothing but a specific kind of labor or human capital and should not be treated separately. The Marxian school goes further, seeing labor (in general, including entrepreneurship) as the primary factor of production, since it is required to produce capital goods and to utilize the gifts of nature. It is unlikely that this difference of opinions between the "Austrians" and the Marxists will be ended soon. But this debate is more about basic economic theory (the role of the factors in the economy) than it is about the definition of the factors of production.

Text 2

The most basic laws in economics are the law of supply and the law of demand. Indeed, almost every economic event or phenomenon is the product of the interaction of these two laws. The law of supply states that the quantity of a good supplied (i.e., the amount owners or producers offer for sale) rises as the market price rises, and falls as the price falls. Conversely, the law of demand says that the quantity of a good demanded falls as the price rises, and vice versa. (Economists do not really have a “law” of supply, though they talk and write as though they do.)

One function of markets is to find “equilibrium” prices that balance the supplies of and demands for goods and services. An equilibrium price (also known as a “market-clearing” price) is one at which each producer can sell all he wants to produce and each consumer can buy all he demands. Naturally, producers always would like to charge higher prices. But even if they have no competitors, they are limited by the law of demand: if producers insist on a higher price, consumers will buy fewer units. The law of supply puts a similar limit on consumers. They always would prefer to pay a lower price than the current one. But if they successfully insist on paying less, suppliers will produce less and some demand will go unsatisfied. Economists often talk of “demand curves” and “supply curves.” A demand curve traces the quantity of a good that consumers will buy at various prices. As the price rises, the number of units demanded declines. That is because everyone’s resources are finite; as the price of one good rises, consumers buy less of that and, sometimes, more of other goods that now are relatively cheaper. Similarly, a supply curve traces the quantity of a good that sellers will produce at various prices. As the price falls, so does the number of units supplied. Equilibrium is the point at which the demand and supply curves intersect—the single price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are the same.

Text 3

Research in the United States suggests that a teenager is exposed to up to 3000 television ads a day. The huge growth of satellite channels and the introduction of the TiVo box, which can record programmes while filtering out the ads, has reduced the reach of the television commercial even more. As a result, brands are turning increasingly to undercover marketing. In America, actresses are hired to go into bars to offer strangers particular brands of alcohol, cigarettes or snacks. They never reveal the truth of their mission, but the intentions are to help foster a feel-good image for their corporate employers. This stealth advertising is aimed particularly at young consumers who are no longer influenced by the heavy sell with which they have grown up.

Britain is not far behind the USA with this technique. Last night in London, party lovers could listen on their mobile phones to a list of places to go out under the slogan “Sol on a mission”. When they relax in front of the soap opera “Hollyoaks”, they will see actors drinking from the bottles of Sol Mexican beer. It is all part of a $1m campaign by Sol. “Today’s youth are very cynical”, said Zoe Smith, Sol’s brand manager in Britain. “You cannot be too obvious. They like something a little bit different that challenges them”.

Text 4

There are a lot of reasons that make people think about owning a business of their own. Personal independence, unlimited profit potential, the opportunity to work at something that they reslly love are some of the reasons.

A common way to learn about a business, and the opportunities for starting one similar to it, is to learn while working for someone else. It provides a source of steady income to people while they are planning to start their own business. About 50 per cent of entrepreneurs start their business in industries in which they have some experience.

Small businesses face many problems. Bad economic times affect small business. In addition, small business profits tend to fall faster, and small businesses are more likely to fail.

What are the problems that face small business now? The main problems facing small business are taxes, slow sales, The high cost of borrowing money and competition.

A corporation is one kind of business organization. Other kinds of business organizations are sole proprietorships and partnerships. Sole proprietorships are the most numerous kinds of business organization. The reason for their popularity is that they are the easiest and least costly to organize.

Sole proprietors own all the profits of their enterprises, and they are their “own bosses”, free to make whatever changes they please. They have minimal legal restrictions and do not have to pay the special taxes placed on corporations.

There are also disadvantages. A very serious one is the unlimited liability that each proprietor faces. All debts and all problems associated with the business belong to the owner.

A partnership is a business organization that is owned by two or more persons.

A partnership is a organization that is owned by two or more persons. Partnerships offer certain advantages over sole proprietorships:

- Partners bring additional funds to a proprietorship.

- Partners can bring fresh ideas and talents to business organizations.

Text 5

Having recently gained its independence, Ukraine is a country comparable in geographical size and population to Italy and France. The country possesses numerous competitive strengths, namely a strategic geographical position and mild climate, rich natural resources, sizeable consumer market, highly educated labour force and well developed transport infrastructure.

However, the Ukrainian economy is currently in a critical position. This is due to the fact that the economy of Ukraine was previously quite isolated, not oriented towards satisfying the national interest of the country. The pricing policy was basically inappropriate because the prices for raw materials and fuel supply were very low and were not stimulating their rational use and the introduction of high technology to industry.

Prior to independence, inter-republic trade accounted for more than 80 per cent of total “exports” and “imports”.

Upon gaining independence in 1991, Ukraine has become an equal member of the international community. There is little doubt that the economic, scientific and human potential of Ukraine is one of the most promising in Europe and offers many business and investment opportunities. Attraction of new investments in the Ukrainian economy, including foreign investments, is one of the effective ways of overcoming this situation.

Relations associated with foreign investments in Ukraine are regulated by a number of Ukrainian laws.

Text 6

Winston Churchill, former prime minister of Great Britain, stated in 1946 that postwar Europe needed a “…sovereign remedy… to recreate the European family, or as much of it as we can, and provide it with a structure under which it can dwell in peace and safety and freedom. We must build a kind of United States of Europe”.

Jean Monnet, who held a number of different positions in the French government and is credited as the founding father of the EU, said that “the states of Europe must form a federation”. George Marshall, Secretary of State for the United States, supported this concept as a way to rebuild Europe after World War 2 and to enable the United States to work with both the victors and the vanquished in Europe as strong strategic allies. They hoped this type of partnership would obviate the possibility of a third world war.

The EU was preceded by several earlier and less ambitious attempts at regional cooperation. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established in 1952, included the six founding countries and centered on combined price and output controls, investment subsidies, tariff protection, and competition rules. The ECSC and the respective governments were instrumental in rebuilding the industries after the war and in protecting those industries from competition.

Text 7

The earliest trade was the caravan trade across the deserts of Asia around 2500 BC to and from cities in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia. These caravans had to carry fodder for the animals and food for the drivers and merchants. Not much space was left for the cargo. As a result, the goods carried were light but valuable, things such as gold and precious stones – that is, luxuries and not necessities.

After this, trade by sea started to become more common.

Athens was the first big commercial city in Europe, and it was the first community to import and export necessities in large quantities. Grain was imported for the increasing population from the shores of the Black Sea, and exports included figs, olive oil, wine, honey, pottery, and textile.

The Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD) was the next big trading community. Increasing quantities of luxuries were imported from the East and from North Africa. Imports included tin, slaves, cloth, and jewels. The Romans also traded with China, and brought back silkworms to start a silk industry in Europe.

In the fifth century AD, Byzantium (later called Constantinople and now Istanbul) became the political capital of the Roman Empire, and remained the world’s commercial capital until the 12^th century.

In the 12^th and 13^th centuries, Venice and Genoa became the world’s leading trade centers. In 1271, the Venetian, Marco Polo, went by land and sea to China and helped establish trading links. Venice was well placed to be the main European commercial center.

The modern World began as the “Age of Discoveries”.

Text 8

Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)".Current economic models developed out of the broader field of political economy in the late 19th century, owing to a desire to use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences.

A definition that captures much of modern economics is that of Lionel Robbins in a 1932 essay: "the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." Scarcity means that available resources are insufficient to satisfy all wants and needs. Absent scarcity and alternative uses of available resources, there is no economic problem. The subject thus defined involves the study of choices as they are affected by incentives and resources.

Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government, but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism

Common distinctions are drawn between various dimensions of economics: between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be") or between economic theory and applied economics or between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus"). However the primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics ("small"economics), which examines the economic behavior of agents (including individuals and firms) and macroeconomics ("big" economics), addressing issues of unemployment, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy for an entire economy.

Text 9

There are many different kinds of economies around the world, but they all fall into two basic categories. One category is the command economy which is also called central planning.  It has strong government control. The other type is the free market economy which is also called capitalism. In this type of economy, there is very little government control. Currently, all real economies combine parts of capitalism with those of central planning. Each country around the world differs from one another in the amount they use the two systems. For example, the United States and Canada have economic systems that use very little government control so they are usually described as capitalistic.

Command economies have strong government control. So if you wanted to start your own business, you would have to get permission from the government. In a command economy, the government owns most of the industries and companies. One type of command economy is communism. True communism is a type of economic system that doesn't allow ownership of private property. Most of the command economies that existed in the world had strong central governments. These governments dictated how much was made and what was made by industry. The communists believed that life is a class struggle between workers and the owners of a industry or factory. In a communistic economy, goods were distributed on an as-needed-basis. In the command economy, the government makes the decisions as to what goods to supply to the people. The Soviet Union was an example of a communistic command economy. Many people think China is still a communist country.  But they, and other countries like them, have given control over some of their economic activities back to the people.

The other basic type of economy is the free market or capitalistic economy. It is an economy that has very little government control. So if you wanted to start your own business, you would not have to get permission from the government. In a free market economy, the consumer decides what they want to buy. A consumer is a customer. The law of supply and demand is what drives the free market economy. Supply and demand is what sets the prices of goods and services in the free market economy. As supply goes up the prices go down. When the demand goes up the prices go up. Due to low government control, people are free to spend their money the way they want to. People can take the risk of starting their own business and losing money or starting their own business and making lots of money. People like James Ford Bell and Will Kellogg took risks in starting their own breakfast cereal businesses. Some examples of countries with a free market economy are The United States of America, Germany, and England. 

In the world today free market economies have social programs such as the Social Security System in The United States. Command economies like China are introducing free market economies into their economy. With the information age upon us, only time will tell where the world economies are headed

Text 10

Three types of economic systems exist, each with their own drawbacks and benefits; the Market Economy, the Planned Economy and the Mixed Economy. An economic system is loosely defined as country’s plan for its services, goods produced, and the exact way in which its economic plan is carried out. In general, there are three major types of economic systems prevailing around the world.