3. Universities and higher education in great britain

Most people in Great Britain start life in universities and colleges at the age of 18. There are more than forty universities in Britain: 36 are in England, 8 in Scotland and one in Wales. The two oldest Universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge.

Oxford is a beautiful city on the river Thames about fifty miles from London. Most of the 39 Oxford colleges are fine buildings of grey and yellow stone. The university was founded in the 12th century and more than 8 thousand students study here at present.

Cambridge is situated at a distance of seventy miles from London on the river Cam. Cambridge University (now 29 colleges and 11 thousand students) was founded at the beginning of the 13th century.

Oxford and Cambridge Universities are known for their specific system of education. They preserve an antique way of life and great emphasis is laid on «tutorials»⁷ Each student has a tutor⁸ (a Don) who gives personal instructions to the students numbering not more than four. Every week the tutor and his students meet to discuss the work they have done, to criticize it in detail and to set the next week's work. The students of Oxford and Cambridge (or Oxbridge, as they are sometimes jointly called) make up one of the most elite [ei'li:t] elites in the world. Many great men studied there: Bacon, Milton, Cromwell, Newton; many prominent politicians and mem­bers of the Royal family were educated here too.

Until the nineteenth century England had no other universities, apart from Oxford and Cambridge. The universities founded between 1850—1930, including Lon­don University are known as redbrick universities (be­cause of the favourable building material of the time). Redbrick universities were built to provide a libe­ral⁹ education and to give technological training for the poorer boys. Oxford and Cambridge graduates scorned them.

The universities founded after World War II are called ♦the new universities» (Kent, Essex, York, etc.).

All British universities are private institutions. Every institution is independent, autonomous and responsible only to its governing council, but they all receive financial support from the state. The admission to the universities is by examinations or selection (interviews).

Students who pass examinations at the end of the three or four years of study get Bachelor's degree¹⁰. The first postgraduate degree is normally that of Master¹¹ conferred for a thesis based on at least one year's fulltime work. Universities are centres of research and many postgra­duates¹² are engaged in research for the higher degree, the degree of Doctor.

A university consists of a number of faculties: arts¹³, science¹⁴, medicine, agriculture, education, law and theology . The teaching is organized in departments, such as engineering, economics, commerce, History, French, etc.

At the head of each faculty there is a professor. Others teachers are lectures, some of the senior teachers have the title of reader¹⁵ or senior lecturer.

Over a third of all full-time students in Britain are living in halls of residence (общежитие), slightly under half are in lodgings and the remainder live at home. The students receive grants.

Education in Britain is not free of charge, it is rather expensive.

4. THE HISTORY OF LONDON

London is without doubt one of the most fascinating cities in the world. It has a long history. The birthplace of London is the Old City.

London was born on the banks of the Thames hundreds of years before our era. There was a small settlement named Llyn-din. To this place in the year 55 before our era Julius Caesar came from Rome.

At first the Romans were driven out by the Britons, but they came back again. Britain was conquered, and for 400 years remained Roman province. Llyn-din became Londinium.

The Romans built long straight roads along which the Roman soldiers marched. The Romans made Londinium a large and rich city with good streets, beautiful palaces, shops and villas. Trade was growing.

In the 5th century the Romans left Britain. The Saxon ordes and the Danes came to the British shores. They conquered the land and ruined the city. During nearly 400 years Londinium lay in ruins.

In the 8th century and later the Saxon kings began to rebuild the ruined city of Londinium. Soon 2 miles west from it, another centre, Westminster Abbey, was founded.

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Norman­dy, came to Britain. He settled in Londinium. It became London — the capital of Norman Britain. For 500 years the Normans were masters of Britain. They brought with them Latin and French civilization. Many Latin and French words penetrated into the old English language.

Westminster Abbey was finished and William was the first king to be crowned there. Since then for nearly 1000 years, all English monarchs have been crowned in the Abbey. Many of them are buried there too.

At that time the Tower of London was built on the Thames.

5. ROBIN HOOD AND THE GOLDEN ARROW

Robin Hood was a legendary hero who was well known and loved by the poor people of England. He lived in a forest far from the towns, and when the poor were oppressed by the rich, he helped them by giving them food and shelter. The sheriffs tried to arrest him but they did not succeed in doing so. Once the sheriff of N. decided to organize a shooting contest in order to catch him because he knew Robin Hood to be a very good shot and was sure that he would take part in the contest by all means. The prize was a golden arrow.

On learning about the forthcoming contest Robin Hood gathered his men and discussed whether they should take part in it. Finally it was decided that although the risk of participating in the contest was great, they should all go, Robin Hood among them.

The day of the contest was fine and clear. The town was decorated with flags, and field for the contest was full of people. The sheriff looked for Robin Hood and his men everywhere. He knew that they were always dressed in green. To his disappointment, however, he could not find anybody who looked like them. The contest was won by a fellow dressed in red, who had come from a village with a whole company of young men. After receiving the prize the fellow left the town, and nobody ever thought that it was Robin Hood. While leaving the town Robin Hood shot an arrow through the sheriff's open window. There was a paper attached to it with the following words: "Robin Hood thanks the sheriff for the Golden Arrow."

6. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

William Shakespeare is the world's greatest poet and dramatist. He was born on April 23, 1564 in Stratford-on- Avon. His mother, Mary Arden, was a daughter of Robert Arden, a farmer. His father, John Shakespeare, was a merchant and he had several houses in Stratford. Two of them were side by side and it was in one of them that William was born. Little is known about William's childhood. He got his education at the Grammar School. He got married in 1582 to Anne Hathaway and had three children, a boy and two girls. William lived in Stratford until he was about twenty-one, when he went to London.

Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of one of the big acting companies. Soon he began to write plays for this company and in a few years became a well- known author. Shakespeare wrote 37 plays. Among them are tragedies such as Hamlet. King Lear, Othello, Macbeth; comedies such as All's Well that Ends Well, Twelfth Night, What You Will, etc. Shakespeare spent the last years of his life in Stratford, where he died in 1616. He was buried in the church of Stratford. A monument was built to him in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.

Shakespeare was a great humanist. His belief in the high and noble features of man's mind and heart was the foundation of his great humanism.

Shakespeare's belief in man was the source of his optimism which we can feel in even his blackest tragedies. Of course, it is not expressed in the positive endings when the Montagues and Capulets (Romeo and Juliet) shake hands or Fortinbras (Hamlet) ascends the throne. The optimism of Shakespeare's tragedies has much deeper roots. His optimism is his belief in the triumph of the principle of harmony. Romeo and Juliet died but their ideal of free and happy love remained. Othello stabbed himself to death, but still retained his faith in harmony and happiness. Lear died but even as he died, he knew that truth existed in the world, personified for him by Cordelia (King Lear).

7. THEATRES AND FESTIVALS IN GREAT BRITAIN

Of the large number of London theatres only three or four are at present performing Shakespearean plays, and even not every night. The reason for that is that the London theatre is very commercialized. Everything is done for the sake of entertainment and profit.

One of the place where the public can see old and well- known or experimental plays is in the so-called "Club" theatres where the money problem is not important since the actors are paid little or nothing. A play is produced for one or two weeks and any profits from this go to pay for the next production. There are several "Club" theatres like this in the London suburbs and all over England. The members are often professionals (out-of-work or ex­actors), but there are also amateurs who have a completely different job in the daytime.

Interesting plays can also be seen at numerous festivals held all over Great Britain. It has become a tradition not only in big cities but in small towns as well to hold a number of art, music and theatre festivals every year. Some festivals have international fame. Edinburgh — the Scottish capital — hosts the famous Edinburgh International Festival which was established in 1947 and has been held annually ever since. Every summer crowds pour into the city¹⁶ to participate in this festival which lasts three weeks. On most evenings during the festival there are as many as six events to choose from the official programme: plays, ballets, concerts — all given by fine artists from all over Britain and some from abroad.

8. AT THE NATIONAL GALLERY

If you stand today in Trafalgar Square with you back to the Nelson Column, you will see a building of classical architecture. This is the National Gallery. It has been in this building since 1838. The British National Picture Gallery is younger than the great galleries in Rome, Paris, Amsterdam and so on.

Most of the landowners and politicians had their own collections of pictures in their country houses. They were not interested in a public collection in London.

In 1777 when one of the greatest private collections of pictures was to be sold, some of the members of Par­liament wanted to buy it for the Nation. But this found no support in the House of Commons. The wonderful pictures went to Russia.

In time things changed and more people wanted to open a National Gallery. Now pictures showing British life and nature and British people are in this gallery.

The world schools of painting are also well represented here: Italian, French, Spanish, etc.

During the last war the walls of the building of the National Gallery were destroyed in some places. But the pictures were taken to Wales and put down in a deep cave at the foot of the mountain. They were saved.

9. TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS

Every nation and every country has its own customs and traditions. In Britain traditions play a more impor­tant part in the life of the people than in other countries.

Englishmen are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them up. It has been the law for about three hundred years that all the theatres are closed on Sundays. No letters are delivered, only a few Sunday papers are published.

To this day an English family prefers a house with a garden to a flat in a modern house with central heating.

English people like gardens. Sometimes the garden in front of the house is a little square covered with cement painted green in imitation of grass and a box of flowers.

Holidays are especially rich in old traditions and are different in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and England. Christmas is a great English national holiday, and in Scotland it is not kept at all, except by clerks in banks; all the shops, mills and factories are working. But six days later, on New Year's Eve the Scotch begin to enjoy themselves. All the shops, mills and factories are closed on New Year's Day.

People invite their friends to their houses and «sit the Old Year out and the New Year in». When the clock begins to strike twelve, the head of the family goes to the entrance door, opens it wide and holds it until the last stroke. Then he shuts the door. He has let the Old Year out and the New Year in.

10. BRITISH FOOD

British food has a bad reputation in Europe. This is not entirely justified. Traditional home-cooked British food is as good as European cooking. A good example is the traditional British Sunday lunch, consisting of roast beef, roast potatoes and pudding. There is also a large variety of excellent British cheeses. British people eat a lot of meat but they rarely eat raw ham. Although not many people in Britain eat rice as a first course, they sometimes eat it as a second course. Wine is expensive, so not many people drink it with their meals. Mineral water is not very common, either. One of the most popular drink with meals in Britain is tea.

The meal for which Britain is most famous is the traditional breakfast, which usually consists of cornflakes with milk, toast with marmalade or honey and tea. Some people also eat sausages, eggs and bacon for their breakfast.

For lunch they usually have soup, fruit juice, cold meat and salad, or fish, or roast meat and vegetables, then goes an apple tart, or a hot milk pudding, cold fruit salad, or ice-cream.

From four to six there is a very light meal called afternoon tea. It consists of a cup of tea and a cake. This became a kind of ritual. At this time "everything stops for tea" in England. The whole nation is at ease drinking tea.

Dinner (usually at 6 p.m.), is much like lunch and is in many families the last main meal of the day. For supper they have tea or coffee with biscuits. Almost every meal finishes with tea (with or without milk), cheese and butter.

The English people like fish and chips. Everybody seems to have a fish and chip supper at home at least once a week. There are fish and chip shops in the side streets of every English town.

If you want to *eat out» in a restaurant in Britain, there is an enormous variety of both British and foreign restaurants to choose from.

11. AT THE PUB For company and conversation the English go to the "pub". The cafes in England sell only coffee, tea and "soft" drinks. You go to a cafe for a meal or for a quick cup of tea, but not to sit and watch the world go by. When you want to relax after a day's work, you go to the local public house¹⁷.

Everybody goes there, except children, who are not allowed in. If you go up to the bar, you may find every kind of person: doctors, schoolmasters, workmen. They all go there, to talk and to drink their usual drink.

The people who want to sing ask someone to play the tunes on the old piano. They group themselves round it and they buy drinks for the pianist. That is the custom. The one who plays has free drinks as long as he plays.

Good humour and good temper give English pubs their character. If you go there regularly the landlord will try to get to know you. He will remember what you usually drink and may well become a personal friend. The pub is the place where you meet people. You get to know other ♦regulars», you buy drinks in turn, which is called «to stand around» and you talk. You talk about the weather or how the English cricket team is doing in the Test Match against Australia. And although they see each other almost every night for years, the regulars who meet there will never go into each other's homes.

12. THE FIRST LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD Nobody knows what the first language was. But scientists feel sure that nobody speaks it today because all

languages change and keep on changing as long as people use them. One language may change in different ways in different places and grow into several languages.

Children don't always use words exactly the way their parents do. They make small changes in the sounds or in the meaning. In time these little changes add up to big changes. If we could meet the people who spoke English five hundred years ago, we probably couldn't understand much what they said.

English itself is a mixture of several languages. Scientists believe that these languages and many others all grew out of the same language which they call Indo- European. Nobody speaks it now. But some of its descendants are Latin, German, English, French, Greek, Russian and many of the different languages spoken in India.

Most civilizations and cultures — in their writings, traditions, folk stories — have some traces of the old language. Only sometimes the ancients tried to learn something about the languages by experiments. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote about the Egyptian king named Psammetichos. He decided to learn which of the world's languages was the oldest. For this he isolated two small children who could not speak yet. Sooner or later they had to begin to speak, but they didn't have any language to imitate, so they would speak the most primitive of the languages, the king thought. One day the children said the word "bekos", it was similar to the Phrygian¹⁸ word for "bread". That was why Phrygian (a language once spoken in Asia Minor¹⁹) was thought to be the first language in the world, at least by king Psammetichos.

13. AMERICAN ENGLISH

Britain and America were once described as nations divided by a commom language. Just what is the diffe­rence between the English spoken in Britain and America?

The first English settlers to reach America arrived in Virginia in 1607 and in Massachusetts in 1620. They all spoke English of the early seventeenth century — the language of Shakespeare and Milton. Most of them came originally from the south and south-east of England.

Although some of them had spent some years of exile in Holland they spoke with the accents of the southern part of their home country. To a large extent they kept that form of speech, but they soon learned to give old words new uses. They also took words from the local Indian languages for plants and animals that were new to them.

Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 over two-thirds of the settlers in what later became the U.S. came from England. After that date many other people came to make a new life for themselves in the New World. These included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch, Italians, Slavs, and Scandinavians. All these people gave new words to the language of North America. The Negroes who had been taken from Africa as slaves to work on the rice and cotton plantations added words and structures from their own native languages. Some people today think that the very American expression O.K. comes from a similar expression which was brought to America by the Negroes.

Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which was to become American English, there is one man who can be singled out as the person who did most to give American English an identity of its own. He was Noah Webster (1758—1843). He is largely responsible for the differences which exist today between British and American spelling.

14. US SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

The United States is a federal union of 50 states plus one independent district — the District of Columbia. Forty-nine states, including Alaska, form the continental United States. The 50th state is separated from the continental part. It is the state of Hawaii²⁰ — a group of islands situated in the mid Pacific Ocean.

Washington, D. C.²¹ is the seat of the Federal Go­vernment of the United States. The Federal Government is made up of three branches — the Executive, the Le­gislative and the Judicial Branches.

The function of the Executive Branch is to carry out the laws of the nation. It consists of the President, Vice- President and the President's Cabinet. The members of the Cabinet are chosen by the President.

The Legislative Branch, Congress, is where the laws are made and adopted. Congress is made up of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators elected, two from each of the 50 states, regardless of their population. The members of the House of Representatives are elected for only 2 years and their number in the Congress depends upon the state's population.

The Judicial Branch is headed by the Supreme Court which settles any disputes involving the national govern­ment or disputes between two or more states.

15. PHILADELPHIA — HISTORICAL CITY OF INDEPENDENCE

Philadelphia, which was founded in 1682 by William Penn, a prominent statesman, was a large city in Colonial America. Even now some parts of the old city remind one of the past. Visitors can walk along the old streets, see the old houses and public buildings.

Here in 1774 the first Congress of delegates from all the colonies was held. Among the delegates were men of great fame, such as George Washington and John Adams, the first and second Presidents of the USA. The main decision of the first Continental Congress was to unite the efforts of all the colonies against Great Britain.

The second Continental Congress, held in Philadelphia a year later, decided to organize an army to defend the colonies. George Washington was chosen commander-in- chief and the War for Independence began. The Congress named a committee of five to draw up the Declaration of Independence. The work was actually done by Thomas Jefferson, then 33 years old. On July 4, 1776 the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Celebration of the fourth of July as Independence Day began the next year.

Philadelphia was the city where the US Constitution was adopted in 1788—1789. In 1790 the first Congress met in Philadelphia and decided that Philadelphia would be the capital of the USA while the federal capital in Washington, D. C. was being built. It remained the capital for the next 10 years.

16. TV AND CHILDREN

Only in recent years scientists and doctors began serious study of the influence of television on children and young people.

Some psychologists say that after parents, television has the greatest influence on children today.

Of course, watching TV has its good and bad sides. From TV children get information about the world, they learn new words and begin to use them in their speech.

But TV also influences the development of a child in a negative way. When children spend all day in front of TV sets they cannot usually find time to read, to play games in the yard, to talk to their parents and friends.

Some teachers say that children who watch TV every day talk too much at school at the lessons. They cannot talk at home while watching TV and so they begin to talk at school.

TV influences the creative abilities of pupils. In America there was such an experiment. 250 good pupils could watch TV for many hours every day. After three weeks the pupils were tested. The results were unusually low.

Pupils who watch TV very much cannot understand an easy story without pictures, tables or illustrations.

Television usually makes children passive. When a child watches TV he lives the lives of TV heroes, he travels with them, does every thing with them. But he is not doing anything, he is just sitting in an armchair and watching TV.

When a child watches TV, everything seems very easy to him. And real life begins to seem easy. He cannot work hard, because watching TV does not need hard work. There is also serious concern about the negative effect of some TV shows in which scenes of violence and crime are predominant.

17. RUSSIAN COINS

In the past, scientists thought that for many centuries only leather and furs were used in ancient Russia as money. But now it is known that silver money was also used.

In the XII—XIV centuries almost all the coins disappeared in Russia. It happened because Russia was at war with the German Knights and the Mongol-Tartars at the same time. After the war the Russians had to fight with the Mongol-Tartars. So normal trade and economic ties with both the West and the East were broken. People began to hide money not to pay it to the Mongol-Tartars, that's why archaeologists to this day find a lot of coins from that period.

In the XIV century some Russian principalities began to make their own silver coins. The coins weighed as much as one rouble. In ancient Russia the word «rouble» meant a silver piece which weighed 200 grammes. The coins were called denga²². Now we use this word as dengi and it means «money». It was difficult to use them in the country as there were more than 25 cities which made money and coins were different in different cities.

In 1534 a single monetary system was introduced in Russian state. It showed that the long process of unification of the country was over. A new coin — a silver copeck — was made. In the 17th century Peter the Great began to rule the country and made many changes in Russia, and one of them was a new monetary system. A silver rouble became the main coin, there were 10 copecks and 5 copecks.

In 1769 the first Russian paper money appeared. When World War I began all gold and silver coins disappeared and only paper money was used at that time.

18. THE INITED NATIONS

The name "United Nations" was coined²³ by U.S. President Franklin D- Roosevelt to describe the countries fighting together in World War II when tjie representatives of 26 states met and signed the Declaration of common intent on New Year's Day in 1942. Representatives of five powers: the USA, the Soviet Union, China, France and Great Britain worked together to draw up principles and proposals for the future organization. These proposals, modified after delibe­ration²⁴ at the conference on International Organization in San Francisco which began in April 1945, were finally agreed on and signed as the U.N. Charter by 50 countries on 26 June, 1945. Belarus was among the founding member states. Poland, not represented at the conference, signed the Charter later and was added to the list of original members. In autumn, after the Charter was ratified by China, France, the U.S.S.R., the U.K. and the

U.S. and by a majority of the other participants, the U.N. officially came into existence. The date was October 24, now it is universally celebrated as United Nations Day.

The essential functions of the U.N. are to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and human problems, promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and to be a centre for coordinating the actions of nations in attaining these common goals.

10. CAN WAR BE ABOLISHED?

Is it possible to persuade mankind to live without war? War is an ancient institution which has existed for at least six thousand years. It was always wicked and usually foolish, but in the past mankind managed to live with it. Modern science has changed this. Either Man will abolish²⁵ war, or war will abolish Man. For the present, it is nuclear weapons that cause the gravest danger, but bacteriological or chemical weapons may soon offer an even greater threat. If we succeed in abolishing nuclear weapons, our work for peace will not be done. It will never be done until we have succeeded in abolishing war. To do this, we need to persuade mankind to look upon international questions in a new way. It is not easy to change age-old mental habits, but this is what must be attempted.

There are those who say that the adoption of this or that ideology would prevent war. I believe this to be a profound error.

The movement of world opinion during the past two years has been very largely such as we can welcome. It has become a commonplace ⁶ that nuclear war can be avoided. Of course very difficult problems remain in the interna­tional sphere, but the spirit in which they are being approached is a better one than it was some years ago. We are beginning to realize that negotiations should reach agreements even if both sides do not find these agree­ments wholly satisfactory. We are beginning to under­stand that the important conflict nowadays is not between East and West, but between Man and the H-bomb.

СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

1. Английский язык: Повторительный курс (для неязыков. ву­зов). — М., 1968.

2. Беляева М.А, Грамматика английского языка. — М., 1984.

3. Бонди Е.А. Английский язык. Повтор, курс. — М., 1988.

4. Бонди Е.А., Царев П.В. Учебное пособие по английскому язы­ку для поступающих в вузы. — М., 1975.

5. Бонк Н.А., Котий Г.А., Лукьянова Н.А. Учебник английского языка, ч. I, II. — Мн., 1991.

6. Клементьев Т.Б. Повторяем времена английского глагола. — М., 1990.

7. Кованова Т.Ф., Сикорская Н.П. Пособие по английскому языку для поступающих в вузы. — Мн., 1975.

8. Крылова И.П., Крылова Е.В. Английская грамматика для всех. — М„ 1989.

9. Кудрявцева JI. Н. Учебник английского языка для делового об­щения. М., 1991.

10. Курашвили Е.И., Михайлова Е.С. Английский язык: Вводно- фонетический курс. — М., 1982.

11. Шевякова В.Е. Вводный фонетический курс английского язы­ка. — М., 1967.

12. Bliemel W. English for Adults. — Oxford, 1980.

13. Carrier M. Contacts For Foreign Students Learning English. The Teaching Workshop Series. — London, 1978.

14. Cook V.J. English for Life: Students' Book. — Oxford, 1982.

15. Forum. Vol. 32. No 1, 1994

16. Graham Carolyn. Jazz Chants. — New York, 1978.

17. Jones L. Notions in English. — Cambridge, 1982.

18. Joy M. Highdays and Holidays. L,. 1981.

19. Johnson K., Morrow K. Approaches. — Cambridge, 1979.

20. Life and Relationship. — London, 1979.

21. Mackin R., Carver D. A Higher Course of English Study. — Oxford, 1975.

22. Matveyev N.K. English for Beginners. — M., 1984.

23. Moscow News. 1987—1994.

24. Murphy Roymond. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge Univer­sity Press, 1995.

25. Seal B. Activities. English for Short Courses. Structure Drills. — London, 1980.

26. Soars John and Lir. Headway. Intermediate. — Oxford, 1987.

27. Speak English. — Minsk, 1985.

28. Thorn M. Thinking English. — Cassel, 1984.

29. Thomson A. J., Martinet A. V. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1966.

30. Zhulkevskaya G.V., Karpysheva N.M. In the United Family. — Minsk, 1987.

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

а. В. ХВВДЧЕНЯ Р. Б. ХОРЕНЬ 2

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ 2

ЯЗЫК 2

ФОНЕТИКА 5

[д]. 39

ГРАММАТИКА 47

МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ (The Pronoun) 69

ИМЯ ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНОЕ (The Numeral) 77

ГЛАГОЛ (The Verb) 82

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ (Modal Verbs) 143

Should, ought (to) 147

Need 147

ПРИЧАСТИЕ (The Participle) 183

ГЕРУНДИЙ (The Gerund) 188

НАРЕЧИЕ (The Adverb) 194

СОЮЗ 203

ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ И ЕГО СТРУКТУРА 206

ЛЕКСИКА 214

UNIT 1 214

КЛЮЧИ К УПРАЖНЕНИЯМ 391

C. 22. 391

ГРАММАТИКА 391

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*

¹ Any - в утвердительных предложениях имеет значение любой. some употребляется в специальных вопросах, а также в общих воп­росах, выражающих вежливое предложение или просьбу.

II. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложе­ния:

1. William Shakespeare was born in 1564 and died in 1616 in Stratford-on-Avon. 2. Shakespeare wrote 37 plays. 3. Jack London was born on the 12th of January 1876 and

I saw your brother

yesterday.

ring the war.

She got up, washed, had

breakfast and went to

He came at 12 last

night.

⁴ Spring Bank Holiday and Late Summer (August) Holiday — офи­циальные выходные дни.

¹³ theology [6i'ol3d3i] — теология

¹⁵ Edinburgh ['edinbara] — Эдинбург

²⁶ it has become a commonplace — стало общепринятым

1 основное расхождение между количеством букв и звуков наблю­дается в системе гласных (6 букв — 20 звуков).

2 know neither of them. Я не знаю никого из них. Either he or his friend Или он или его друг no- will help me.может мне.Упражнения

1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на формы и значения место­имений.

1. Make yourself at home. 2. Have you any money on you? 3. I don't want to stay at home. Let's go somewhere tonight. 4. Is there anybody in the room? — No, there is nobody there. 5. Have you anything interesting to read? — Yes, come to my place. I've got some interesting books. You may take any of them. 6. It's very dark here. I can-

3He didn't ring me up.

4Boxing Day — день рождественских подарков (второй день рож­дества )

5Good Friday — великая пятница (пятница на страстной неделе)

6⁸ Easter Monday — второй день пасхи

7Tutorial [tju'torial] system — система прикрепления студентов к преподавателям-консультантам.

8Tutor — преподаватель-консультант (в университетах Англии).

9liberal — (зд.) гуманитарный

10Bachelor's degree — степень бакалавра

11the degree of Master — степень магистра

12postgraduate ['poust'graedjuit] — аспирант

13arts — (зд) гуманитарный

14science — (зд.) естественный

15science — (зд.) естественный

16 crowds pour into the city— толпы заполняют город 419

17 the local public house — местный бар

18Phrygian ffridjisn] — фригийский язык

19Asia Minor — Малая Азия

20Hawaii [ha'vaii] — Гаваи (острова и штат)

21D. С. — District of Columbia [кэ'1лтЬ|3] — округ Колумбия

22denga ['denga]— (зд.) деньги

23coin, v — придумывать, создавать иовые слова, выражения

24deliberation — обсуждение

25abolish, v — уничтожить, побеждать