- •The adjective. Types of adj. Degrees of comparison.
- •The numeral and its properties.
- •The verb. Classification of verbs.
- •Classification of verbs:
- •The verb. The category of tense
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of aspect in modern English
- •8. The category of mood
- •9. The noun. The category of number
- •10. The noun. The category of case
- •Grammatical peculiarities
- •Formation of tenses
- •Substitutes
- •13. The problem and the essence of the article in English.
- •15. The essence of the Perfect forms.
- •16.The pronoun.
- •17. Statives. The category of State .
- •The Functions of the Stative:
- •18. Morphemes.
- •19. The infinitive
- •I. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •II. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction (The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)
- •IV. The Absolute Infinitive Construction
- •22. The notion of a grammatical category. Its distinction from notional and philosophical categories.
- •23. Parts of speech and principles of their classification.
- •1 Principle
- •2 Principle
- •3 Principle
- •24. The sentence. The classification of sent-s according to their structure and communicative purposes.
- •25. Types of the simple sentences.
- •27 The object. Types of objects.
- •Types of object
- •Forms of object
- •28 The attribute. Types of attributes.
- •§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into nondetached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •30. The predicate. Types of predicates.
- •31. Phrases. Types of phrases.
- •1. Attributive
- •2. Objective
- •32. Syndetic complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses.
- •Classification:
- •33. Types of syntactic connection in a phrase:
- •Basic Word Order
- •Word order patterns
- •Word order in different sentences
- •Statements (Declarative sentences)
- •Questions (Interrogative sentences)
- •36. Composite sentences. Its difference from the simple sentence.
- •37. Types of adverbial modifiers.
- •Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier
- •§ 100. This adverbial expresses:
- •§ 101. The adverbial of time has four variations:
- •§ 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
- •§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature).
- •§ 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of.
- •38. The sequence of tences in English. Sequence of tenses in complex sentences
- •Part 2. Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses
- •Present or future in the main clause
- •Past tense in the main clause
- •Exception from the rule
- •The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause
- •40. The verb. The categories of person and number.
- •Verb: Person and Number.
- •In a communicative act, third person pronouns can be deictic and non-deictic (anaphoric).
- •In English, only the third person present tense singular form expresses person grammatically; therefore, the verb forms are obligatorily associated with personal pronouns.
- •I shall speak English
- •I am at home.
- •I was at home.
- •42. The semi-complex sentence.
- •43. The semi-compound sentence.
- •45. Смотри 40
- •46. The adverbs.
- •2) Spatial.
2 Principle
The Formal Approach
Only form should be used as a criterion for the classification of the p/of/sp. (Henry Sweet, Cruisinga).
They distinguished between two classes of words:
declinable indeclinable
(changeable forms) (static forms)
articles, prepositions
must
This criterion is also unreliable. It doesn’t take into account the way a word functions in the sentence. Must functions as many other verbs, for instance shall which has a declinable form.
This approach has limitations:
p/of/sp are morphological classes (Фортунатов), which means they are words with a similar paradigm. But this fact cannot be applied to the lang. such as Chinese, where morph. system is non-existent or poorly-developed.
p/of/sp are gr. word classes (Реформатский), he takes into account their morph an syntactical properties (form and function). This is the borderline between the second and the third approaches
3 Principle
The Syntactic (Functional) Approach
Only the syntactic function of a word should be taken into consideration as a criterion for p/of/sp classification.
24. The sentence. The classification of sent-s according to their structure and communicative purposes.
Classification of sentences based on their communicative function
Aspects of the sentence:
- the structural aspect – the form of the sentence, the way words are organized into it
- the semantic aspect – the meaning of the sent.
- the actual aspect – determines which part of the sent conveys the most imp.info
- the pragmatic aspect – the use of the sent.as a unit of communication: a statement, a question, an order, a request, a promise
Types of communication:
declarative, interrogative, imperative (incl.emotional) and exclamatory
Declarative – the subj precedes the verb
Interrogative – aux.v in front of the subj.special w-order, very few modal words – modal w-s expressing full certainty (certainly, surely…) can’t appear in a sent, expressing a question
Semi-interrogative sent-s – “oh, you’ve seen him?”
Imperative – no gram.subj, the v – in the imperative mood; modal words, expressing possibility (perhaps,maybe) are incompatible with orders and requests
The notion of exclamatory sent-s and their relation to the other 3 types presents some difficulty: every sent, whether narrative, interrogative or imperative, may be exclamatory, i.e. it may convey the speaker’s feelings and be characterized by emphatic intonation and by an exclamation mark
Eq. But he can’t do anything to you! What can he possibly do to you! Scarlett, spare me!
Purely exclamatory sentence: “Oh, for God’s sake, Henry!”
The structure of a certain sent.may be used for other communicative purposes than those that are characteristics of the sent-s of this class
eq. Yes/No questions – You will speak to him? – declarative
Rhetorical questions – Is that the reason for despair? (of course not)
Classification of sentences based of their structure.
The structural aspect of the sentence deals with the structural organization of the sentence, it reveals the mechanisms of deriving sentences and structural types of sentences.
According to their structure sentences are classified into simple (monopredicative structures) and composite (polypredicative structures) which are further subdivided into complex (based on subordination) and compound (based on coordination). Clauses within the structure of a composite sentence may be connected with the help of formal markers (conjunctions and connectives: relative pronouns and relative adverbs - syndetically) and without any formal markers -asyndetically. Thus we should differentiate between two structural varieties of composite sentences: syndetic and asyndetic types.
Though the difference between the complex and compound sentences is based on the two different types of semantic relations: subordination and coordination, the borderline between complex and compound sentences is not always hard and fast. Sentences may have formal markers of subordination but the semantic relations between the clauses appear to be more coordinate than subordinate. Thus, the meaning of subordination is largely weakened in attributive continuative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun 'which', e.g. She said 'no' which was exactly what I had expected to hear. The relations between the two clauses are closer to coordinate, as we can replace the subordinate connective ''which' by the coordinate conjunction 'and' without changing essentially the meaning of the sentence. Another example of weakened subordination is observed in sentences introduced by the conjunction 'whereas'. E.g. She was very tall whereas her husband hardly reached her shoulder. The meaning of this formally complex sentence can be rendered by a compound sentence: She was very tall and her husband hardly reached her shoulder.
Besides there are also peripheral types: semicomplex and semicompound sentences which contain structures of secondary predication: infinitival, participial and gerundial constructions, absolute constructions with or without a participle and structures with the so-called double predicate. E.g. There is so much work to be done — There is so much work that has to be done.