- •The adjective. Types of adj. Degrees of comparison.
- •The numeral and its properties.
- •The verb. Classification of verbs.
- •Classification of verbs:
- •The verb. The category of tense
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of aspect in modern English
- •8. The category of mood
- •9. The noun. The category of number
- •10. The noun. The category of case
- •Grammatical peculiarities
- •Formation of tenses
- •Substitutes
- •13. The problem and the essence of the article in English.
- •15. The essence of the Perfect forms.
- •16.The pronoun.
- •17. Statives. The category of State .
- •The Functions of the Stative:
- •18. Morphemes.
- •19. The infinitive
- •I. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •II. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction (The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)
- •IV. The Absolute Infinitive Construction
- •22. The notion of a grammatical category. Its distinction from notional and philosophical categories.
- •23. Parts of speech and principles of their classification.
- •1 Principle
- •2 Principle
- •3 Principle
- •24. The sentence. The classification of sent-s according to their structure and communicative purposes.
- •25. Types of the simple sentences.
- •27 The object. Types of objects.
- •Types of object
- •Forms of object
- •28 The attribute. Types of attributes.
- •§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into nondetached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •30. The predicate. Types of predicates.
- •31. Phrases. Types of phrases.
- •1. Attributive
- •2. Objective
- •32. Syndetic complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses.
- •Classification:
- •33. Types of syntactic connection in a phrase:
- •Basic Word Order
- •Word order patterns
- •Word order in different sentences
- •Statements (Declarative sentences)
- •Questions (Interrogative sentences)
- •36. Composite sentences. Its difference from the simple sentence.
- •37. Types of adverbial modifiers.
- •Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier
- •§ 100. This adverbial expresses:
- •§ 101. The adverbial of time has four variations:
- •§ 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
- •§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature).
- •§ 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of.
- •38. The sequence of tences in English. Sequence of tenses in complex sentences
- •Part 2. Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses
- •Present or future in the main clause
- •Past tense in the main clause
- •Exception from the rule
- •The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause
- •40. The verb. The categories of person and number.
- •Verb: Person and Number.
- •In a communicative act, third person pronouns can be deictic and non-deictic (anaphoric).
- •In English, only the third person present tense singular form expresses person grammatically; therefore, the verb forms are obligatorily associated with personal pronouns.
- •I shall speak English
- •I am at home.
- •I was at home.
- •42. The semi-complex sentence.
- •43. The semi-compound sentence.
- •45. Смотри 40
- •46. The adverbs.
- •2) Spatial.
13. The problem and the essence of the article in English.
If we treat article as word, we shall have to admit that English has only two articles - and a/an. But if we treat article as wordmorpheme, we shall have three articles - the, a/an, o. M.Blokh regards article as special type of grammatical auxiliary. Linguists are only agreed on function of article: article is determiner, or restricter. articles, do not form grammatical category. articles, they argue, do not belong to same lexeme, and they do not have meaning common to them: a/an has meaning of oneness, not found in the, which has demonstrative meaning. If we treat article as morpheme, then we shall have to set up grammatical category in noun, category of determination. In this opposition definite article is strong member and indefinite article is weak member. same analysis can be extended to abstract and concrete countable nouns, e.g. courage: courage vs. courage. In contrast to countables, restricted uncountables are used with two indefinite articles: a/an and zero. role of indefinite article is to individuate subamount of entity which is presented here as an aspect of entity.
15. The essence of the Perfect forms.
The gramm. category of phase or time-correlation built on opposition of perf. and non-perf. forms.
Non-Perfect – unmarked member. Perfect – marked (strong) member, is built with aux. “to have” and the Past Part. of the verb. the meaning: it expresses priority to a certain moment & correlates the action with that moment => the name of the category – time-correlation.
The problem of the perfect forms is most controversial: To what gram. category do perf. forms belong? There are 4 different ways of interpreting the Perf.:
Perfect form as tense: (works by Henry Sweet, Curme, Ганшина, Василевская)
The perf. denotes a secondary temporal characteristic of an action; it doesn’t refer an action to a certain point of time but expresses priority to the present, past or future. Non-perfect forms- primary tenses; perfect forms – secondary tenses. Primary tenses refer an action to a certain point of time in the past or in the future, or they refer actions t the moment of speaking. Secondary tenses don’t refer actions to the moments of time, but they express priority to the moments of time in the past/future, or denote actions prior to the moment of speaking.
Thus, the pres. perf. may be regarded as a form which denotes an action that occurs before the moment of speaking.
The past perf. expresses an action which took place before a certain moment.
The future perf. – an action that will take place before the certain moment of speaking.
Perfect form as aspect form: (Prof. Ильиш: past & future perfect forms should be regarded as relative tenses, because they express priority, but the pres. perfect should be treated as a form of special aspect (the resultative aspect).
Prof. Вoронцова also treats perfect forms within the framework (основа) of aspect (transmissive aspect forms – вид преемственности). Since the pres. perf. shows the action in the past connected with the present, then the most important feature of this form to show continuity (преемственность) between past & present.
Perfect form as a representative of a certain category: (Prof. Смирницкий speaks about the category of time correlation). It’s represented by the opposition of perf. and non-perf. forms. Perf. forms have noting to do with the notion of tense. Obviously the difference between “took” & “had taken” is not temporal, since both forms denote past actions.
From the view point of a special categorical meaning , the difference between perf. & non-perf. forms is that non-perf. forms denote actions taking place at a certain moment or period of time, while perf. forms denote actions prior to certain moments or periods of time. From this point of view the opposition represents the grammatical meaning of priority found in perf. forms & non-priority found in non-perf. forms.
This theory was favourably accepted by grammarians, but some of them said that there’s a weak point in it. The past perf. & the future perf. on the one hand, and the pres. perf. on the other. The meanings are not the same. The past & future perf. forms denote priority, but the meaning of the pres. pref. is not limited to priority, there’s always some connection with the present.