- •Contents
- •List of abbreviations
- •Preface
- •Introduction
- •Germanic languages
- •Classification of germanic languages
- •Ancient germanic tribes and their classification
- •Germanic alphabets
- •Some phonetic peculiarities of germanic languages
- •Consonants
- •The First Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law)
- •Ііі. Act The ie aspirated voiced plosives bh, dh, gh changed in Gc to corresponding unaspirated plosives b, d, g, e.G.
- •Verner`s Law
- •Word – Stress
- •Stressed vowels
- •Germanic Fracture (Breaking)
- •Gradation or Ablaut
- •Unstressed Vowels
- •Grammatical peculiarities of germanic languages
- •The Noun
- •The Adjective
- •The Verb
- •Gothic Strong Verbs
- •Vocabulary
- •Old english
- •2.1. Periods in the History of English
- •2.2. Historical Background
- •2.2.1. The Roman Conquest of Britain
- •2.2.2. The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain
- •2.3. Alphabet and Pronunciation
- •Old English Alphabet
- •2.4. Old English Dialects and Written Records
- •2.5. Some Phonetic Changes of the Old English Period
- •2.5.1. Vowels
- •2.5.2. Old English Breaking
- •2.5.3. Palatal Mutation (I-mutation)
- •Monophthongs
- •Diphthongs
- •2.5.4. Back or Velar Mutation (Velarization)
- •2.5.5. Diphthongization of Vowels after Palatal Consonants
- •2.5.6. Lengthening of Short Vowels
- •2.5.7. Unstressed Vowels
- •2.5.8. Consonants
- •2.5.9. Palatalization of Velar Consonants
- •2.5.10. Assimilation, Metathesis, Doubling of Consonants, Loss of Consonants
- •2.6. Old English Morphology
- •2.6.1. Old English Noun: General Characteristics
- •Vowel Stems
- •Consonant Stems
- •2.6.2. Vowel Stems Strong Declension
- •2.6.3. Consonant Stems: Weak Declension, Minor Declensions
- •2.6.4. Root-Stems
- •2.6.5. Pronouns
- •2.6.5.1. Personal Pronouns
- •2.6.5.2. Demonstrative Pronouns
- •Declension of the Demonstrative Pronoun þes
- •2.6.6. Adjectives
- •2.6.6.1. Strong Declension of Adjectives
- •2.6.6.2. Weak Declension of Adjectives
- •2.6.6.3. Degrees of Comparison
- •2.6.7. Adverbs
- •2.6.7.1. Formation of Adverbs
- •2.6.7.2. Comparison of Adverbs
- •2.6.8. The Verb: General Characteristics
- •Conjugation of verbs
- •2.6.8.1. Strong Verbs
- •2.6.8.2. Weak Verbs
- •Conjugation of Weak Verbs
- •2.6.8.3. Preterite-Present Verbs
- •Conjugation of Preterite - Present verbs
- •2.6.8.4. Anomalous verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb dōn
- •Indicative mood
- •2.6.8.5. Suppletive Verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon
- •Indicative mood
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān
- •Indicative mood
- •2.7. Old English Syntax
- •2.8. The Old English Vocabulary
- •2.8.1. Word-Building
- •Suffixation
- •Prefixation
- •Composition
- •2.8.2. Borrowings
- •Latin borrowings
- •Celtic Borrowings
- •Middle english
- •3.1. Historical Background
- •3.1.1. Scandinavian Invasions
- •3.1.2. The Norman Conquest
- •3.2. Middle English Dialects Rise of the London Dialect
- •3.3. Early Middle English Written Records
- •3.4. Word Stress
- •3.5. Vowels
- •3.5.1. Unstressed Vowels
- •3.5.2. Stressed vowels
- •3.5.2.1. Quantitative Vowel Changes
- •3.5.2.2. Qualitative Vowel Changes
- •Monophthongs
- •3.5.2.3. Monophthongization of Old English Diphthongs
- •3.5.2.4. Rise of New Diphthongs
- •3.6. Evolution of Consonants in Middle English
- •3.7. Spelling Changes in Middle English
- •3.7.1. Changes in the Designation of Vowels
- •3.7.2. Changes in the designation of Consonants
- •3.8. Changes in the Grammatical System
- •3.8.1. Preliminary Remarks
- •3.8.2. The Noun
- •3.8.2.1. Gender
- •3.8.2.2. Number
- •3.8.2.3. Decay of Noun Declensions
- •3.8.3. The Adjective
- •3.8.3.1. Declension of Adjectives in Late Middle English
- •3.8.3.2. Degrees of Comparison
- •3.8.4. Adverbs
- •3.8.4.1. Formation of Adverbs
- •3.8.4.2. Comparison of Adverbs
- •3.8.5. The Pronoun
- •3.8.5.1. Personal Pronouns
- •3.8.5.2. Possessive pronouns
- •3.8.5.3. Demonstrative Pronouns
- •3.8.5.4. Rise of the Articles
- •3.8.6. The Verb: General Characteristics
- •Conjugation of Verbs
- •Conjugation of Verbs Past Indicative
- •3.8.5.1. Changes in the Morphological Classes of Verbs in Middle English and Early New English
- •3.8.6.1. Strong Verbs
- •3.8.6.2. Weak Verbs
- •3.8.6.3. Preterite-present Verbs
- •3.8.6.4. Suppletive verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •3.8.6.5. Rise of Analytical Forms
- •Future Forms
- •Perfect Forms
- •Passive Forms
- •Continuous Forms
- •3.8.7. Development of the Syntactic System
- •3.9. Middle English Vocabulary Changes
- •3.9.1. Native Derivational Affixes
- •3.9.2. French Derivational Affixes
- •3.9.3. Scandinavian Borrowings
- •3.9.4. French Borrowings
- •New english
- •4.1. The formation of the English National Language
- •4.2. Changes in Pronunciation
- •4.2.1. Development of Unstressed Vowels
- •4.2.1.1. Loss of unstressed –e [ə]
- •4.2.1.2. Loss of Vowels in Intermediate Syllables
- •4.2.2. Stressed Vowels
- •4.2.2.1. The Great Vowel Shift
- •4.2.2.2. Shortening of Long Vowels
- •4.2.2.3. Development of Short Vowels
- •4.2.2.4. The Development of the New Short [л]
- •4.2.2.5. Changes in Diphthongs
- •4.2.2.6. Vowel Changes under the Influence of Consonants
- •4.2.3. Consonants
- •4.2.3.1. Voicing of Voiceless Consonants
- •4.2.3.2. Loss of Consonants Development of [X]
- •Simplification of Consonant Clusters
- •4.2.3.3. Change of [d] to [ð] when Close to [r]
- •4.2.3.4. Development of Sibilants and Affricates in Early New English
- •4.3. Changes in Spelling
- •4.4. Local Dialects in New English
- •4.4.1. Scottish Dialect
- •4.4.2. Northern Dialects
- •4.4.3. Western, Central and Southern Dialects
- •4.5. Some Essential Grammatical Changes of the New English Period: Morphology
- •4.5.1. The Noun
- •4.5.1.1. Number
- •4.5.1.2. Cases
- •4.5.2. The Pronoun
- •4.5.2.1. Personal Pronouns
- •4.5.2.2. Possessive Pronouns
- •4.5.3. The Adjective
- •4.5.4. The Adverb
- •4.5.5. The Verb
- •4.5.5.1. Personal Endings
- •4.5.5.2. Changes in Strong Verbs
- •4.5.5.3. Changes in Weak Verbs
- •4.5.5.4. Rise of Invariable Verbs
- •4.5.5.5. Changes in Preterite-Present Verbs
- •4.5.5.6. Irregular Verbs
- •4.6. New English Syntax
- •4.7. New English Vocabulary Changes
- •4.7.1. Latin Loanwords
- •4.7.2. Latinization of French Loanwords
- •4.7.3. Greek loanwords
- •4.7.4. French Loanwords
- •4.7.5. Mixed vocabulary of New English
- •4.7.6. Italian and Spanish Loanwords
- •4.7.7. Russian Loanwords
- •4.8. The Expansion of English
- •4.9. The English Language in the usa
- •4.9.1. Some peculiarities of American Pronunciation
- •4.9.2. American Spelling
- •4.9.3. Some peculiarities of American Grammar
- •4.9.4. Vocabulary of American English
- •Conclusion
- •Bibliography
3.8. Changes in the Grammatical System
3.8.1. Preliminary Remarks
One of the leading tendencies in the ME period was the gradual loss of synthetic ways of expressing the relations between words and the development of analytical means.
The loss of synthetic forms was especially manifest in the gradual reduction, levelling and loss of endings, a process closely connected with the fixation of word stress on the first or root syllable. The results of that process were already felt in OE, where one has to speak of zero endings in such forms as mån –men, ʒōd (sg) - ʒōd (pl), etc.
Some originally different case forms coincided even in OE, e.g. the nominative and the accusative of most declensions.
In the XI c. the levelling of endings grew much more intensive, which was partly due to Scandinavian influence.
Many originally different forms of the same word merged, e.g. OE scipe, scipu, scipa merged in ME shipe. OE sprecan, spræcon, sprecen merged in ME sp(r)ēken (speak)
It is quite comprehensible that the effect of such merging on the system of grammatical endings was devastating. Nevertheless, some of the old grammatical endings have survived to this day.
3.8.2. The Noun
3.8.2.1. Gender
By the end of the ME period gender as a grammatical category was lost with other distinctive features of noun declensions nearly everywhere. It came to be a purely lexical category, denoting division into inanimate and animate nouns, with a further subdivision of the latter into males and females. There was already a mixture of masculine and neuter genders in Late OE: the neuter a-stems differed from the masculine a-stems only in the nominative and accusative plural. In all other cases they shared the same endings. Later the masculine and neuter genders began to mix with the feminine gender. With the reduction of endings to -e [ə] in OE n-stems the differentiation between masculine, which ended in –a, and neuter/feminine, which ended in –e, disappeared. Gender disintegration was partly due to the mixture of English and Scandinavian dialects. The gender of cognate words in both languages did not always coincide. Cf. OE steorra (masculine) –Osc stjarna (feminine) (star); OE bāt (masculine) – Osc beit (neuter) (boat); OE beorg (masculine) – Osc bjarg (neuter) (hill, mountain). The decay of gender distinctions was also due to a great influx of French loanwords, which had no formal signs of gender.
In Chaucer’s time, the OE grammatical gender was already lost. In the sentence «the yonge sonne hath in the Ram his halve course y-ronne» (Chaucer) the pronoun «his» points either to the masculine or neuter gender, while in OE sunne belonged to feminine (sēo sunne). In the following example «she» points to a woman, while «it» replaces the noun mous, which in OE was feminine: She wolde wepe, if that she saw a mous,
Caught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde (Chaucer)
3.8.2.2. Number
The noun preserved the distinction of two numbers, but their expression changed. With the loss of gender distinctions the ME plural ending -es (from OE -as of the nominative and accusative plural, a-stem, masculine) spread to most nouns of other stems. Moreover, there was a great difference between the OE ending-as and the ME -es: while the OE -as expressed number and case simultaneously (which is typical of inflexional languages), the ME -es expresses number alone and it is not connected with any notion of case.Thus, in ME the expression of number is separated from that of case.
At first, the plural ending -s spread in Northern dialects.
In the South, however, nouns retained the plural ending -en of the weak declension, e.g. oxen, eyen. The weak -en ending was even added to some nouns of other stems. Thus, the noun child (former -es-stem) acquired the plural form children instead of childre < OE cildru.The nouns of former r-stem also acquired the plural ending -en: brōther – brethren, doghter – doghtern, suster – sustren. The noun cow (former root-stem) got the plural form kine.
However, in Late ME the plural ending -es became predominant everywhere. The strengthening of -es may be partly attributed to its coincidence with the plural inflexion -s in Anglo-Norman.
Some nouns of the former a-stems, neuter gender in the long-stemmed variant preserved the uninflected forms, e.g. sheep, deer, swine, hors (horse).
Several nouns of the root-stems preserved different vowels in the singular and plural forms, e.g. man – men, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, woman – women, etc. Thus, mutation became a grammatical sign of the plural number.
What surprises the student of English is why nouns like man, foot or tooth did not conform to the general tendency and have preserved their peculiar way of forming the plural. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky offers the following explanation: (1) these words are used very frequently, which usually impedes the influence of analogy. It is noteworthy that the greatest number of irregularities are found among the words, which are used most frequently, such as the verb to be, the personal pronouns, etc. (2) The difference between the singular and the plural of these nouns is not merely grammatical, but to some extent lexical too: the plural forms have an additional «collective meaning». Cf. R человек – люди. The same might be true with regard to the nouns sheep, deer, fish, etc.