III. Mona Baker distinguishes between:

• Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another.

• Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages (e.g. number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender).

• Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. In this case the translator should take into account three main factors, that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type.

• Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the translation process. The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly.

2. Semantic Correspondence

The term “meaning” should be considered as widely as possible, thus the task of a translator is to render completely all types of meaning:

Type of meaning	Its characteristics	Example
Referential meaning	The denotative ‘dictionary’ meaning (референциальное значение). This type of meaning has direct reference to things or phenomena of objective reality.	Country town - провинциальный город
Pragmatic (or emotive) meaning	It reflects the subjective relations, that is emotional, expressive and stylistic.	Ударник - record-setter in work productivity / top performer, shock-worker
Interlinguistic (linguistic) meaning	It reflects the relationship between the language sign and the participant of the process of speech.	Policeman – 1) полисмен, полицейский (a member of a police force, esp. one holding the rank of constable); 2) полицай (recruited by Nazi authorities from among collaborating locals in occupied territories during World War Two)

The Degree of Preservation of Meaning

The degree of preservation of meaning in the process of translation is different; it mostly depends on the type of meaning.

Reason	Example
The highest degree of preservation of meaning is that of referential meanings, because they are better translatable, the reason is easily explained as the objective reality of the language communities has more common features than differences and so referential meanings coincide more often than not in different languages.	Thus, human capital is a means of production, into which additional investment yields additional output. Таким образом, человеческий капитал – это средство производства, дополнительные инвестиции в который приносят дополнительный доход. (Complete correspondence)
Pragmatic meanings have a lower degree and the difference lies in the fact that the relation of different communities to the given things, notions and situations will be different, so the attitude will be different, too. It especially concerns metaphorical meanings and complex cultural idioms, where the sense of the phrase is always diverges from the sum of the individual elements.	Ex. 1 Большевик - Bolshevik (from Russian Bol'shevik majority, from bol'shoi - great; from the fact that this group formed a majority of the Russian Social Democratic Party in 1903); the derivative is bolshie - реакционер, бунтарь; ярый фанатик; несговорчивый приверженец своих взглядов Ex. 2 To go a bomb (BE) to be successful – иметь успех; (AE) to go badly - провалиться, потерпеть неудачу
A minimum degree of preservation is in interlinguistic meaning. In this case a translator can resort to functional replacement.	Ex. 1 He had visions of grandeur for the little factory … Он четко представлял себе, как из маленькой фабрики сделать мощное предприятие … Literal translation: У него было видение грандиозности для маленькой фабрики … Ex. 2 Though having “human capital” gives workers some benefits, they are still dependent on the owners of non-human wealth for their livelihood. Хотя наличие «человеческого капитала» дает работникам некоторое преимущество, их заработок все равно зависит от тех людей, богатство которых воплощено в материальных и денежных активах. Literal translation: … они все равно зависят от владельцев нечеловеческого богатства в отношении своих средств к существованию.

All types of semantic correspondences between the lexical units of two languages can be presented in 3 main types:

1. complete correspondence;

2. partial correspondence;

3. absence of correspondence (non-equivalent lexis).

Complete Correspondences

This case is relatively rare. As a rule these are mono-semantic words, that is, they have one meaning in both languages. Such words can be presented by the following groups:

Semantic group	English example	Russian translation
Proper and geographical names	The British Isles	Британские острова
Scientific and technical terms	Eye of hurricane	Глаз бури; глаз тропического циклона
Words closed in semantics	(days of the week, months, etc.) Sunday, March	Воскресенье, март

However, not all the words belonging to these groups are characterized by complete correspondences.

Ex: lighting - 1) освещение; 2) зажигание; воспламенениеж 3) запуск (ракетного двигателя)

Partial Correspondences

Partial correspondence is the most widely spread case in the process of comparing lexical units of two languages. In this case one word in the SL has several semantic equivalents in the TL.

Ex. table – стол

English	Russian
1) a piece of furniture - стол kitchen table - кухонный стол	1) предмет мебели - table письменный стол - writing table / desk
2) food as served in a particular household or restaurant - пища, стол; еда, кухня good table - хороший стол, вкусная еда	2) питание - board; diet; meals; (кухня) cooking, cuisine стол и квартира - board and lodging диетический стол - diet, dietary meals
3) such a piece of furniture specially designed for any of various purposes - доска для настольных игр backgammon table –доска для игры в нарды	3) (отдел в учреждении) desk, department, office стол заказов - order placement desk адресный стол - address bureau паспортный стол - passport office
5) any flat or level area, such as a plateau - горное плато, плоскогорье
6) an arrangement of words, numbers, or signs, usually in parallel columns, to display data or relations a table of contents - таблица; расписание, табель
7) a tablet on which laws were inscribed by the ancient Romans, the Hebrews, etc. - скрижаль ten tables - десять заповедей

Absence of Correspondences (Non-equivalent lexis)

Non-equivalent lexis is words and word-combinations of the source language, denoting objects, processes and other realia which do not exist or have correspondences at present in the target language.

Types of non-equivalent lexis	1) temporary non-equivalence: the target language has no ready equivalence. Ex: plane spotter - a person who observes, photographs, and catalogues aircraft as a hobby
	2) constant non-equivalence: - these are words which designate concepts or realities of culture, i. e. exotisms and realia. Ex: Bushism - an apparently fatuous statement attributed to George W. Bush, 43rd Presidnt of the USA Ex: house party - вечеринка в загородном доме (гости остаются на ночь или на несколько дней) - lacunas: lexical units don’t have equivalents in the target language because they denote specific elements typical of the source language national culture only. Ex: arm / hand – рука
Where non-equivalent lexis can be found	1) in science fiction and scientific and technical literature where authors use a lot of terms and neologisms. Ex: start-up - "стартап" (недавно созданная фирма, обычно интернет-компания) 2) in the names of realia: - geographical and ethnographical realia Ex: Stakhanovism - (in the former Soviet Union) a system designed to raise production by offering incentives to efficient workers; - everyday life realia Ex: brandy; изба; - political realia Ex: агитпункт
Ways of translation	1) loan translation (or calque) Ex: brain drain - утечка мозгов (массовая эмиграция научных работников); Ex: bloodstream - кровоток 2) transcription / transliteration Ex: окрошка – okroshka; Ex: flash mob - флеш-моб 3) descriptive translation Ex: caregiver - тот, кто ухаживает за больным, инвалидом, пожилым человеком (обычно на дому); Ex: дружинник (добровольный помощник милиции) - member of voluntary police, police helper

It should be noted that each exercise involves some kind of loss of meaning due to a number of factors. The basic loss can result from overtranslation (increased detail - детализация) or undertranslation (increased generalization - обобщение).

Firstly, if the text describes a situation, which has elements peculiar to the natural environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning unless there is already recognized translation equivalent in the target language.

Secondly, as the two languages have different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, they determine many physical objects and intellectual concepts differently. Usually the closer the language and the culture, the closer the translation and the origin.

Thirdly, very often the individual usage (словоупотребление) of the language of the text by the writer and the translator don’t coincide. Everybody has lexical, if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, or peculiarities (индивидуальная или групповая отличительная особенность (характера, стиля)) and attaches “private” meaning to some words. The translator usually writes in a style that comes naturally to him unless the text prevents it.

Fourthly, the translator and the writer of the text have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator’s theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may set greater value than the writer of the text on connotation (коннотация (дополнительное, сопутствующее значение языковой единицы или категории)) and correspondingly less on denotation (значение; смысл).

Thus, the translator requires knowledge of literary and nonliterary text criticism (критика (анализ, истолкование и оценка литературных и художественных произведений)) since he has to estimate and assess the quality of the text before he desides how to interpret it and then translate it.