6) Social ideas of Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was known as one of the leading Social Darwinists of the 19th century. An English philosopher, Spencer declined an offer to attend Cambridge University and instead gained much of his higher education through reading. As a Social Darwinist, Spencer helped gain acceptance of the theory of evolution which also became the basis for most of his books and teachings. The principle of evolution believed in the process whereby all things change from the simplest of forms to the most complex. It was Herbert Spencer who actually coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" which depicted a constant struggle amongst the species. As a result of this continual struggle, the stronger species survived and multiplied while the weaker species perished. His work "Synthetic Philosophy" applied this evolutionary process to all branches of knowledge specifically biology, psychology, sociology and ethics. Spencer was an agnostic who believed that the only way to gain knowledge was through a scientific approach. He felt that religion was a futile attempt to gain knowledge of the unknown. Spencer wanted to replace the theological systems of the Middle Ages with his philosophical system which stated that all knowledge could be placed within the framework of modern science. Science was the only way to gain "useful" knowledge. It was through this "scientific" knowledge that people learned to live in society.

Spencer read with excitement the original positivist sociology of Auguste Comte. A philosopher of science, Comte had proposed a theory of sociocultural evolution that society progresses by a general law of three stages. Writing after various developments in biology, however, Spencer rejected what he regarded as the ideological aspects of Comte's positivism, attempting to reformulate social science in terms of evolutionary biology. One might broadly describe Spencer's sociology as socially Darwinistic (though strictly speaking he was a proponent of Lamarckism rather than Darwinism).

The evolutionary progression from simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to complex, differentiated heterogeneity was exemplified, Spencer argued, by the development of society. He developed a theory of two types of society, the militant and the industrial, which corresponded to this evolutionary progression. Militant society, structured around relationships of hierarchy and obedience, was simple and undifferentiated; industrial society, based on voluntary, contractually assumed social obligations, was complex and differentiated. Society, which Spencer conceptualized as a 'social organism' evolved from the simpler state to the more complex according to the universal law of evolution. Moreover, industrial society was the direct descendant of the ideal society developed in Social Statics, although Spencer now equivocated over whether the evolution of society would result in anarchism (as he had first believed) or whether it pointed to a continued role for the state, albeit one reduced to the minimal functions of the enforcement of contracts and external defense.

Though Spencer made some valuable contributions to early sociology, not least in his influence on structural functionalism, his attempt to introduce Lamarckian or Darwinian ideas into the realm of social science was unsuccessful. It was considered by many, furthermore, to be actively dangerous. Hermeneuticians of the period, such as Wilhelm Dilthey, would pioneer the distinction between the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften) and human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften). In the 1890s, Émile Durkheim established formal academic sociology with a firm emphasis on practical social research. By the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists, most notably Max Weber, had presented methodological antipositivism.

Spenser perceived society to be a progression of small homogeneous groups evolving into large complex groups over an extended period of time. This theory was proven true through the Industrial Revolution. Industry rose

dramatically during this time accompanied by specialized professions. People uprooted from their small towns and farmlands and moved to these industrial areas to find work. This migration eventually led to the emergence of large cities. Spencer used his Social Darwinism in all aspects of society - social, political, economic, and education.

Spencer was a noted non-conformist who detested authority and strongly emphasized individualism. In Spencer's work "Social Status", he stated that individual freedom was extremely important and that the government should play a limited role in society especially in the schools. He did not believe in the public school system. His major criticism of the school system was that it did not prepare children to live in society. Instead, Spencer believed in the private school system which competed for the brightest students. Because of his belief in competition, conflict and

struggle, Spencer felt that the most exemplary schools would eventually acquire the best teachers and students.

Spencer, not surprisingly, stressed the importance of the sciences in the schools. Learning should be a sensory experience where a student interacts within his/her environment; a slow, gradual, and inductive process. Children should be encouraged to explore and discover which would allow them to acquire knowledge naturally. Education should also be a pleasant experience for children with the least restrictions possible. Rote memorization and recitation were strongly opposed. A student should only engage in those activities that would ultimately allow him/her to survive in society. Special emphasis was placed on the physical, biological, and social sciences while English grammar and literature were believed to be outdated.

Spencer became one of the major proponents of modern curriculum theory. He created quite an uproar in England with his curriculum theory because the major focus of education continued to be the Latin and Greek languages

and literature. In his work "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" Spencer stated that this question needed to be answered before any curriculum was chosen or any instruction commenced. Once this question was answered, it

should be made certain that the curriculum aid in advancing survival and progress. To achieve this advancement Spencer believed that there were five activities necessary in curriculum. These activities assisted in

self preservation, performance of occupations, child-rearing, social and political participation, and recreation and leisure. Once again, the main goal was to teach subjects that would contribute to successful living. Spencer's ideas concerning curriculum were widely accepted in the United States where change was not resisted.

Education today continues to be influenced by Spencer's Social Darwinist theories. In fact, his curriculum activities based on human needs are still being implemented in one form or another. His influences are still felt as education continues to discuss voucher systems for private schools, the smaller role of government in education, and in the stressing of teaching skills that will assist students in becoming individuals who contribute to the good of society.

Several of Spencer's works are being utilized in today's most prestigious universities. His "Principles of Biology" is a text at Oxford University. His "Principles of Psychology" text can be found at Harvard. The "Study of Sociology" is Spencer's work used not only as a textbook at Yale, but was the textbook used for the first course in Sociology in the United States. Sociology became a discipline in the United States because of Spencer's impressive work.

7.  Sociology and the social sciences.

Sociology (from Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge") is the scientific or systematic study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture. Like other scientific disciplines, sociology engages in organized, systematic study of phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to enhance understanding. All scientists, whether studying mushrooms or murderers, attempt to collect precise information through methods of study which are as objective as possible. They rely on careful recording of observations and accumulation of data. Social science is the study of various aspects of human society. The social sciences include sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science.