22	NONIDEAL PLASMA. BASIC CONCEPTS

e ciency of up to 20%. Such converters are advantageous over semiconductor ones because they can greatly vary their characteristics upon variation of the applied pressure.

Another example of strongly nonideal plasmas is provided by dusty plasmas, which have various applications. These include electrophysics of rocket-fuel combustion products, production of microelectronic devices, plasma deposition and etching technologies, technologies of surface modification, etc. Dust particles are not only deliberately introduced in a plasma, but can also form and grow due to di erent physical processes, e.g., volume condensation upon the e ux of plasma from nozzles, upon the plasma expansion in the channel of an MHD generator, upon the expansion of aggregates of matter into a vacuum, in the products of ablation of a solid surface subjected to the e ect of high energy fluxes, etc. Dust and dusty plasmas are quite natural in space. They are present in planetary rings, comet tails, and interplanetary and interstellar clouds (Goertz 1989; Northrop 1992; Tsytovich 1997; Bliokh et al. 1995). Dusty plasmas are found in the vicinity of artificial satellites and space stations (Whipple 1981; Robinson and Coakley 1992) and in thermonuclear facilities with magnetic confinement (Tsytovich and Winter 1998; Winter and Gebauer 1999; Winter 2000).

A nonideal plasma results from powerful electric discharges in water and solids and its properties define the dynamics of motion of generated shock waves. Pulsed electric discharges in a liquid have found extensive industrial application, e.g., for intensifying mechanical and chemical production processes (Ivanov et al. 1982). The operation of such facilities is based on the use of high–voltage discharge in the liquid as the process of rapid conversion of the energy of a capacitor bank to mechanical work. The discharge duration is 10−5–10−4 s, with an energy density of 1014–1015 J m−3, a temperature of 104–105 K and the pressure in the discharge channel up to 1 TPa. Under these conditions, the properties of a nonideal plasma, especially its electrical conductivity, a ect the process of both the formation and expansion of the current–conducting channel, as well as shock wave generation.

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