Перевод герундия на русский язык

Существительным	A thermometer is used for measuring temperature.	Термометр используется для измерения температуры.
Неопределенной формой глагола	Measuring temperature is necessary in many experiments.	Измерять температуру необходимо во многих опытах.
Деепричастием	By measuring temperature of the mixture we can control its state.	Измеряя температуру смеси, мы можем проверять ее состояние.
Глаголом в личной форме	I remember having measured the temperature of the mixture in due time.	Я помню, что своевременно измерил температуру смеси.

Тексты для дополнительного чтения

Irkutsk State Railway Transport University

Irkutsk State Railway Ttransport University

15 Chernyshevsky St.

Irkutsk 664074

Fax: [phone];

Tel: 63-93-48;

e-mail: [e-mail]

The educational institution was set up in 1975.

The system of continuing education includes:

• Secondary education in specialized classes and the system of preparatory courses.

• Higher professional education in 21 educational qualifications (Transportation management, Customs, Complex computer-aided system security, Expertise and estate management, Environmental protection, Finance and credit, Quality management and others).

• Scientific further education: post graduate courses in 11 educational qualifications.

• Further education courses: refresher and supplementary courses for specialists.

The university is an efficient institution offering a broad range of subjects and a diversity of creative options. Our aim is to constantly improve upon the quality of education and research to ensure that studying, teaching and researching in Irkutsk State Railway Transport University continue to be enjoyable.

The First Railways

Railways play a very important part in the economic and political development of a country. Although we have now faster and more modern means of communication and transport, railways are still the safest and the most popular means of transportation.

It is difficult for the people living in the 21^st century to imagine the opposition to the building of the first railroads. Many people were afraid of the railways and did all in their power to stop railway construction.

The early railways were not like the railways we know today. The very first railways used horses for drawing trains and were built for transporting such products as coal, ore and timber. Later on, horse-powered railways appeared in large cities and were used as passenger transport. But these railways did not last long. The invention of steam locomotives made the railway the most important of all means of transportation.

The Steam Locomotive

In 1808 Richard Trevithick, an Englishman, made an attempt to use steam power to draw passenger and freight trains. He demonstrated his working model in London. People looked at his little locomotive with great interest when it ran on a circular track of iron rails. For a shilling the public could travel in a carriage drawn by the steam engine. It developed a speed of 12 mph (19.2 kph). But one day a rail broke and the locomotive overturned.

Many people did not believe it was possible to make steam engines suitable for service. However, in 1829 George Stephenson, an English inventor and engineer, built a successful steam locomotive which he called the "Rocket". This locomotive was much smaller and lighter than the steam engines developed later on, and it was much slower. Nevertheless, it could draw a small train of loaded cars on the railway and developed a speed of 13 mph (21 kph). The "Rocket" is now demonstrated in the British Museum.

mph - miles per hour - миль в час

kph - kilometres per hour - километров в час

Railroading in Russia

In Russia, many people had doubts about the possibility of using steam engines in the Russian winter. Nevertheless, the first steam railway was put into service at the Nizhni Tagil metal works. It was a short distance line of only 854 metres long. Another railway was soon constructed in 1837. It was a 15 mile public railway between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo.

The first steam locomotive in Russia was built by the Cherepanovs, father and son, who were talented and skilled workmen of their time. Thanks to the Cherepanovs our country was one of the first countries to use steam as tractive power.

More than a century passed since that time. Many changes took place on railways. Still greater changes will take place in the future. We shall run more powerful locomotives and more comfortable cars. Greater speeds will be achieved by diesel and electric locomotives. Railways will soon be operated by means of electronic computers. A great number of other developments will be introduced.

Russian Educational System

From the history of education in Russia

In pre-revolutionary Russia there was a network of primary schools for common people. Nevertheless illiteracy among common people was very high: about 76 per cent of the Russian population was illiterate, women accounting for 88 per cent of that. 48 nationalities in Russia had no written languages at all.

Well-off people taught their children in grammar schools, commercial schools or secondary schools teaching where the classics were not taught.

There were schools for nobles only, for example, the Lyceum, where A.S. Pushkin studied. Only boys at the age of 10 to 12 from noble families studied there for 6 years. The most important subjects were Russian literature, history, geography, mathematics, physics, logic, law, rhetoric and foreign languages as well as Latin. Great emphasis was given to different arts and physical training: riding, fencing, swimming and dancing.

After the revolution in 1917, all education was free of charge, including higher education. Teaching at schools was conducted in all national languages.

School attendance was compulsory for those between 7 and 15. Higher education lasted 5 years.

After 1991 new subjects were introduced in schools such as “The World Around Us” for younger students and “Basics of Information Science and Computer Engineering” for senior students. Along with state schools many private schools, colleges, lyceums, high schools and different courses where students can study science and humanities including foreign languages were introduced.

Higher Education

The history of higher education in Russia goes back to 1755 when the first University was founded in Moscow by M.V.Lomonosov. Later, universities were opened in many other big cities of the country.

Until 1991 Russia had 890 institutions of higher education, among them 68 state universities. More than 5 million students – representatives of all nationalities – studied there.

Further education

The wide-ranging system of postgraduate education created in our country provides facilities for raising specialists’ qualification of national industry and culture. Within the system more than 1mln 300 thousand people are trained annually, not only mastering their profession but also improving upon their knowledge of general theory, computer science and economics. Nearly 60 thousand graduate students are trained at the postgraduate courses of the Higher School, with more than 20 thousand dissertation thesis being completed and defended annually by graduates or those in industry.

NATASHA'S UNIVERSITY

Hello, everybody! Let me tell you about my University which is the biggest one in Irkutsk. It is situated on the left bank of the Angara river. The full name of the University is the Irkutsk State Technical University. I am really glad that I study here. It is one of the best-known higher educational institu­tions in Siberia. Many famous people have graduated from our University, and not only engineers or scientists, but also outstanding writers, actors, showmen and politicians. Studying at the University gives a solid background in all spheres of knowledge and prepares for practical work.

Our University is quite large and old. It was founded in 1930 as the Gorny (Mining) High School. Then it was rearranged into the Mining Institute. Nowadays it is a large school with more than 22,000 students. About 15,000 are full-time students, like me, and the rest are part time-students. There are also about 300 postgraduate stu­dents. They carry out independent research work and have field practice.

The course of study at my University lasts five years. There are many faculties at the University. Here are some of them: the faculty of Cybernetics, the faculty of Transport Systems, the Mining faculty, the faculty of Oriental Studies, the faculty of Business and Law, the Energy faculty, the faculty of Architecture and Design and others.

Our University is large and we have several buildings. One of the buildings is for lectures and seminars only. There are many large halls there so that students of 3-4 groups together can fit in there. And that is more than 100 people. The acoustics [q'ku:stiks] in such large halls is very good but sometimes it is very noisy when students chat during the lecture.

For those who like to go in for sports there is a gymnasium and numerous sports grounds.

We have some laboratory buildings which are equipped with up-to-date equipment. Students can carry out lab work and various experiments there. Many students from my group do their own research work.

There are several cafes and canteens at the University. The largest canteen is situated on the ground floor of the main building. The food there is tasty and not very expensive. There are also some dormitories or student halls where students from other cities live. But you know already that I don’t live in a dormitory - I rent a flat.

We usually have a lecture and two lessons or seminars a day. I am interested in many subjects but my favourite one is physics. During the intervals we have a rest. Our intervals last for 10 or 15 minutes. At the end of every term we have examinations. At this time students have to take exams in 5 or 6 subjects.

Words and Expressions

best-known широко известный

famous знаменитый

outstanding выдающийся

background фон, основа

full-time students cтyденты днeвнoro отдeлeния

part- time students cтyденты вечернего oтдeлeния

post-graduate stu­dent аспирант

mining горный

rearrange преобразовывать

to conduct npоводить

to carry out выполнять, осуществлять

course of study кypc o6yчения

Cybernetics кибернетика

Oriental восточный

law право, юриспруденция

noisy шyмный

to chat бeceдoвaть, бoлтать

to be equipped with быть oбopyдованным

up-to-date equipment coвpeмeннoe oбopyдoвaние

carry on проводить

various различный

research [ri'sWC] work исследовательская paбoтa

canteen столовая

tasty ['teisti] вкycный

expensive дорогой

several несколько

dormitory, student halls общежитие

gym (gymnasium) cпоpтзaл

semester (term) ceмecтp

course of studies кypc oбyчeния

faculty, college, department фaкyльтeт

department кaфeдpa

teaching instructor (TI) npeподaвaтeль

dean дeкaн

teaching staff, faculty members npenoдaвaтeльcкий cocтaв

student of distant education стyдeнт - “зaoчник”

preparatory courses noдготовительные кypсы

undergraduate student студент 1-4(5) кypсoв

graduate student студент 5-6 курсов (магистрант, аспирант)

RUSSIAN RAILWAYS

Russia is often spoken of as a great rail power because it has the largest railway system in the world. The total length of Russian railways is over 143,000 km. Russian Railways (RZD) carries an enormous volume of home traffic—nearly 66 per cent of freight and 37 per cent of passengers.

Old Russia could be proud of its railway scientists and engineers who constructed good steam locomo­tives and the passenger cars produced in Russia were the best in Europe. The Trans-Siberian Railway was thought of as a very important means of communication between Europe and Asia. The trains built for regular service on that line were made up of richly-decorated sleeping cars which provided many comforts for passengers.

Nowadays, the Russian Railway system carries about 50 per cent of the world's rail traffic. Most traffic is carried by powerful diesel and electric locomotives. Automation and computers are introduced into many branches of railway engineering. Particular attention is paid to its high-speed. Speeds of 120—150 kph are practical for the express trains. In the near future trains will run at 200 kph.

The Trans-Siberian Railway

The total length of the Trans-Siberian line is nearly 9,600 km. That is the world's longest railway.

The construction of the Trans-Siberian line began in 1891 and it was put into operation in 1905. However, the railway was poorly built and accidents often took place.

The reconstruction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began after 1917. Now most of the line is electric. All freight and passenger trains are operated by powerful diesel and electric locomotives.

The Trans-Siberian Railway plays a very important part in the economic development of our country because it carries a large volume of traffic. It also acts as an international container service between Europe and Japan.

Great changes will take place on the Trans-Siberian Railway in the future. Faster locomotives will be put into service. Automation and efficient electronic computers will provide a safer transportation of freight and passengers.

Underground Railways

The underground railways as a kind of city transport appeared in the second half of the 19th century. The first underground system was proposed for London by Charles Pearson in 1843. But most people criticized the project. Indeed, when constructed, the Metropolitan line was not a success.

While travelling public experienced many discomforts. The tunnels were made as small as possible in order to reduce construction costs. The coaches them­selves were small and narrow. The small windows in the trains were made in the roof so that passen­gers could not see anything. The oil and gas lamps used gave little light. So passengers wishing to read, while travelling, had to take candles with them. Besides, the steam loco­motives filled the tunnels with steam and smoke. It was this discomfort that later on made engineers introduce electric traction for hauling trains on underground railways.

When put into service, electric trains eliminated steam and smoke and ensured a much more frequent service for passengers. Since that time the construction of great rapid subway systems in such great cities as London, New York, Berlin and Moscow has become practical.

London Underground

In 1863 Londoners used a new and strange mode of travel – the first underground railway in the world. This first line was four miles long.

At present different types of trains are running in different directions. The old Tube runs under the centre of London with frequent stops. There are also trains going out to the suburbs and making a few stops on the way to the country. The fares are all different and even the carriages are not alike.

There are about 300 underground stations in London and its suburbs. Stations are indicated by an illuminated London Transport symbol. On escalators, the rule is — walk on the left, stand on the right.

Trains run frequently until about 23.30 (Sundays 22.30) from the central area. The total length of the London Underground is 250 miles. The system carries two million passengers every day.

Moscow Metro

Nowadays Moscow Metro is one of the most highly developed underground systems in the world. Its beautiful architecture and cleanliness are well known. All stations with their marble and mosaic decoration look like palaces.

Work on the first section from "Sokolniki" to "Central Park" was initiated in 1932. While the workers were building this line they encountered many engineering difficulties because of soil conditions. More than 75,000 men and women took part in the construction of the Moscow Metro. On Sundays they were assisted by thousands of volunteers.

The Moscow Metro consists of a circle line with twelve stations and other lines radiating from the centre to the countryside. The total length of metro lines in Moscow is now nearly 300 km. Construction work is still going on.

The Moscow Metro handles several millions of passengers a day. At peak hours trains are to run with intervals of about 80 seconds.

The Moscow Metro is equipped with the latest machinery and has a perfect air-conditioning system. Looking into the future we can see the time when a system of electronic computers will provide a more efficient public service on our Metro.

THE CAR OF THE FUTURE

At the present rate of production, oil supplies will run out in about fifty years, and we will have to look for other sources of energy. That is one of the most important aspects of the problem, another being the damage that exhaust fumes do to the environment and health, especially in the towns.

What kind of vehicle will eventually take over? At present there is a lot of talk about electric cars, for they have the advantage of giving off no exhaust fumes. The electric car has a long history. The first cars were built at the end of last century, but they could not compete against the internal combustion engine.

They have several disadvantages. Firstly, we have no really suitable batteries — they tend to be too heavy, take a long time to change, have too small a capacity and a relatively short life.

An electric car can run 200-250 km on one charge while the conventional car which can do about 400 km on a full tank.

POLLUTION

People have designed and produced up-to-date machines and technology to make their life easier and more comfortable. But all these activities result in air and water pollution.

One of the most important problems is the oceans. A lot of ships crossing the oceans and seas, especially those that carry oil, put their wastes into water, and the water becomes dirty. As a result many birds and fish die because of polluted water, others are getting contaminated and people may get sick from eating them.

The second problem is air pollution. Cars and plants pollute the atmosphere with their wastes. They destroy the ozone layer which protects us from the UV-rays of the Sun. They also destroy forests which are dying from acid rains.

Now people are beginning to realise the danger of their activities. People are concerned about the air and the water used by everyone; they are also concerned about the future of the planet because they understand that these activities affect the balance of nature.

In order to make our life not only easier but better and healthier we must learn to protect the water, the air and the earth from pollution. Our planet belongs to our children and if we want our children to live in a healthier world we must do everything to protect them from the catastrophe.

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Computer science is a part of an applied mathematics. Specialists in computer science say that this field of knowledge is very interesting because it deals with computer-aided-design (CAD) and computer-aided-manufacturing (CAM).

Computers are intended to improve the productivity of labour of scientists, designers, engineers, managers, and other specialists, because computers offer quick and optimal solutions. One of the main goals of using CAD/ CAM is to shorten the time between designing and manufacturing.

Moreover, computers came into our lives and to our houses and now we use them on an everyday basis.

Computers can be divided into simple and complex devices. Simple computers such as calculators can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Complex computers can do different logical operations and some of them even have artificial intelligence.

In order to elaborate up-to-date and inexpensive programs as well as to defend them from viruses, it is important to know some programming languages. There are low-level programming languages such as a machine language and an assembly language and high-level programming languages, for instance, FORTRAN, PASCAL, ADA, C, BASIC, etc.

MANAGEMENT

Management is the art of getting things done through other people. It includes the personnel who have the right to make decisions that influence company's affairs.

There are three management levels: top management, middle management and operating management. Top management includes the president, vice presidents, and the general manager. Middle management includes department managers and plant managers. Operating management includes supervisors, foremen, etc.

The most important responsibility of any manager is decision making. Successful management is a skill of choosing between various alternatives.

Decision making is divided into: recognizing the problem, defining and analyzing the problem, evaluating alternative solutions, choosing the most favourable solution and implementing the approach chosen.

Management functions are planning, organizing, directing, controlling, staffing and innovating. It should be noted that successful management is based on three basic elements: leadership, motivation and communication.

To operate a successful business one should have management skills because effective management is the key to business success.

MARKETING

Marketing is the performance of business activities connected with the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers. Marketing includes the following operations: transporting, storing, pricing and selling goods. The most important thing in marketing is finding out who the customers are and what they want. Marketing is the process of having the right product at the right time in the right place, the process that brings mutual benefit to customers and vendors.

Transporting means carrying goods from the place of production to the place of selling.

Storing is necessary because the consumer does not want to have to wait for their goods.

Pricing involves the art of determining what price is the best.

Selling involves helping consumers discover their needs. Marketers should inform potential buyers of where goods can be bought and how much they cost.

Market research is also very important. The following are steps in market research: defining the problem, collecting data, compiling data and analyzing the results and advertising.

Marketing operations are very expensive and one should consider the value added through marketing. Marketing becomes too costly only when cost exceeds the value it adds.

THE Mongolian Railway

Mongolian Railway operates some 1,815 kilometres of track routes of which 1,110 kilometres is "Trans-Mongolian Main Line" which carried a maximum of 17.8 million of freight and 2.6 million commuter passengers accordingly in 1999 and a maximum volume of 2.3 million tons transit freight carried in 1958. With its present carrying capacity of up to 36 million tons of which only 21% is currently utilised.

Since 1956 the Mongolian Railway has provided one of shortest international routes from Europe to China, East and South Asia. The collapse of the former socialist system resulted in the worsening of the economies in these countries and freight traffic between them has greatly declined. But Mongolian Railway's Transit Line with its cost effective and flexible freight carrying service remains one of the shortest routes connecting Europe and South East Asia.

Measures are currently being undertaken to strengthen the rolling stock fleet, up­grading and strengthening of track, major improvements to border terminal stations along with the installation of new telecommunications and computerised freight and stock control systems. This major investment and the introduction of a market-oriented management along with the traditional high security cargo forwarding will ensure reliable and faster freight transportation services to our customers.