Glossary of linguistic terms:

1. equipotent - равносильный

2. dominational – с преобладанием одной из частей

3. semi-predicative – полу-предикативный

Additional Reading:

1. стр. 177-179

2. стр. 104-118

3. –

4. стр. 248-254

5. стр. 247-265

XXVIII. The notion of syntactic relations. Their main types.

Syntactical relations are the relations showing interdependence of the elements of both phrases and sentences. These fall under two main heads: (1) agreement or concord, (2) government.

Agreement

By agreement we mean a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate. In Modern English this can refer only to the category of number: a subordinate word agrees in number with its head word if it has different, number forms at all. In some other languages, such as Russian, there is also agreement in case and gender. This is practically found in two words only, the pronouns this and that, which agree in number with their head word.

On the sentence level there is agreement of the verb with the noun or pronoun denoting the subject of the action (a child plays, children play). (agreement of the predicate with the subject).

Government

By government we understand the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by its head word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself — that is the difference between agreement and government.

The role of government in Modern English is almost as insignificant as that of agreement. We do not find in English any verbs, or nouns, or adjectives, requiring the subordinate noun to be in one case rather than in another. Nor do we find prepositions requiring anything of the kind.

The only thing that may be termed government in Modern English is the use of the objective case of personal pronouns and of the pronoun who when they are subordinate to a verb or follow a preposition. Thus, for instance, the forms me, him, her, us, them, are required if the pronoun follows a verb (e. g. find or invite) or any preposition whatever.

As a kind of government relations we can describe the relations between verbs and the use of noun-objects after them with certain prepositions, required by verbs: agree to an offer, listen to music, look at the picture, wait for the answer. There is analogy with the way Russian verbs express government with the case of their noun-object: согласиться на что (в.п.), ждать чего (р.п.), радоваться чему (д.п.).

There are two more syntactic relations:

adjoinment and enclosure.

Adjoinment is usually described in a negative way, as absence both of agreement and of government. The most usual example of this type of connection is the relation between an adverb and its head word, whether this is an adjective or a verb (or another adverb, for that matter). An adverb is subordinate to its head word, without either agreeing with or being governed by it.

There may be several verbs in the sentence, and the question has to be answered, how does the reader (or hearer) know to which of them the adverb is actually subordinated. Here a lexicological factor intervenes: the adverb must be semantically compatible with its head word. Examples may be found where the connection between an adverb and its head word is preserved even at a considerable distance, owing to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adverb. Swiftly he thought of the different things she had told him.

Enclosure (Russian замыкание) plays a significant part in Modern English. Some element of a phrase is, as it were, enclosed between two parts of another element. The most widely known case of "enclosure" is the putting of a word between an article and the noun to which the article belongs. Any word or phrase thus enclosed is shown to be an attribute to the noun. As is well known, many other words than adjectives and nouns can be found in that position, and many phrases, too. The then government — here the adverb then, being enclosed between the article and the noun it belongs to, is in this way shown to be an attribute to the noun. In the phrase an on-the-spot investigation the phrase on-the-spot is enclosed between the article and the noun to which the article belongs, and this characterises the syntactic connections of the phrase.

In English very often it is only by lexical relations between the words that syntactical connections can be clear to the reader or the listener. So, the weakness of formal indications of syntactical relations makes English the language of collocations. The funeral was well under way. The adverb well can only modify the phrase under way, as a phrase well under is unthinkable. This is possible because the phrase under way, which is a phraseological unit, has much the same meaning as going on, developing, etc.

Example: She made him a good husband.

She made him a good wife.

She made him a good dinner.

Glossary of lingustic terms:

1. agreement - согласование

2. government - управление

3. enclosure - замыкание

4. adjoinment – примыкание

Additional reading:

1. стр. 175-181

2. стр. 118-163

3. –

4. –

5. стр. 247-248

Practical tasks:

9. State the type of syntactic relations in the following phrases:

• really amazing

• People were busy

• A lower I’m-talking-to-myself voice

• Came in to ask

XXIX. The sentence and its aspects.

Sentence is the most complex unit in the language system. It is a result of it having both many-layer structure and its various communicative functions. This explains the fact that sentence has several aspects: structural, semantic, pragmatic. Each of the aspects is the basis of classification, according to the structure, meaning and function of the sentences.

The structure of the sentence includes various relations between the elements of the sentence. They are: relations between the parts of the sentence, components of phrases, the sequence of elements of the sentence. According to their structure, sentences can be two-axis and one-axis, simple, composite (complex and compound).

The semantic aspect of the sentence studies the role of components in the semantics of the parts of the sentence and the whole of the sentence. Parts of the co-ordinate complex sentence, clauses also have semantic relations. Besides, parts of the sentence have specific meaning, as agent and patient meaning of objects.

The pragmatic aspect of the sentence is connected with its participation in the act of speech. The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore from the point of view of the function they can be classified into declarative, imperative and interrogative. These communicative types stand in strict opposition to one another, and their inner properties of form and meaning are immediately correlated with the corresponding features of the response.