Glossary of linguistic terms:

1. parsing – грамматический разбор

2. binary/non-binary – бинарный, двойной/не состоящий из двух частей

3. cluster – «гроздь», совокупность

4. determiner – определяющее слово

5. syntactic valency – синтаксическая валентность, способность слова вступать в сочетания с другими словами

6. complementive – комплетивные, восполняющие отношения. Отношения, при которых зависимый компонент является необходимым смысловым добавлением, без которого главное слово не обладает достаточной информативностью

7. supplementive – дополнительные, не являющиеся необходимым смысловым добавлением для данного главного слова

8. distribuitonal – дистрибутивный, метод распределения языковых элементов по прусущим данному языку законам.

Additional reading:

1. –

2. стр. 207-209

3. –

4. стр. 294-298

5. стр. 310-335

Practical tasks:

9. Build up the immediate constituents model of the sentences:

Something was stirring in the depth of her subconscious.

The exhausted boy greeted his father rather unwillingly.

XXXVII. The distributional model

The distributional model was offered by the American linguist Charles Freez in his work “The structure of English”. According to this pattern the sentence is defined as a certain succession of words belonging to certain sets (parts of speech) and used in certain forms.

The old man saw a black dog.

1a 2d 1b

D3 he - D3 he/she/it

where: D – determiner of the noun

3 – adjective

1 – noun singular, m

he

2d – verb in Past Tense

-

1. - noun singular, m,f,n

he,she,it

4 – adverb

a, b – marks above 1 point out that given nouns have different denotates, i.e. objects.

Freez’s pattern makes it possible to express the sentence structure from the point of view of distribution of certain forms of certain parts of speech in speech chain.

The fault of this model is that it reveals the succession of words, but not the real syntactic ties between the words. That is why in terms of Freez’s pattern it is sometimes impossible to distinguish even rather simple constructions, which have different syntactic relations, but have the same formular in distributional pattern:

The police shot the man in the red cap. and The police shot the man in the right arm.

D 1a 2 – d D 1b f D 3 1a

+ + he F it

Distributional model is used in the IC model.

Glossary of the linguistic terms:

1. denotate – денотат, предмет или явление действительности, с которым соотносится данная языковая единица.

Additional reading:

Блох М.Я. «Практикум по теоретической грамматике англ.яз.» – стр. 332 - 335

XXXIII. THE TRANSFORMATIONAL MODEL

Transformation is transition from one pattern of certain notional parts to another pattern of the same notional parts. Some sentence patterns are base patterns, others are their transforms. A question can be described as transformationally produced from a statement, a negation – from an affirmation.

You are fond of sport. - Are you fond of sport?

You are fond of sport. – You are not fond of sport.

Why are the directions of transition given in this way and not vice versa? Because the ordinary affirmative statement presents a positive expression of the fact, free of the speaker’s appraisals. It carries the propositional content, the cognitive content of the utterance. Proposition is the reflection of a state-of-affairs and consists of reference and predication. Reference is the denotation of a thing, person or idea. Predication assigns o property or relation to the denotated thing, person, idea.

Similarly, a composite sentence can be presented as dirived from two or more simple sentences:

He turned to the waiter. + The waiter stood in the doorway. – He turned to the waiter who stood in the doorway.

These transformational relations can be interpreted as regular derivation stages comparable to categorial form-making processes in morphology and word-building.

The initial basic elements of syntactic derivation are called kernel sentences. Structurally in coincides with elementary sentences, described in IC-model. But the pattern of the kernel sentence is the base of a paradigmatic derivation in the corresponding sentence pattern series. Syntactic derivation is paradigmatic production of more complex pattern construction out of kernel pattern constructions as structural bases.

I saw him come. It is produced from the two kernel sentences: I saw him + He came.

S + S S

N-subj VP N-subj V N-subj VP

V N-obj V NP-obj

N V-inf

The derivation of genuine sentences lying on the surface of speech out of kernel sentences lying in the “deep base” of speech can be analysed as a set of elementary transformational steps or procedures:

1. Morphological arrangement of the sentence, morphological changes expressing syntactically relevant categories, above all, the predicative categories of the finite verb: tense, aspect, voice, mood.

In paradigmatic syntax, such units as He has arrived, He has not arrived, Has he arrived, He will arrive, He will not arrive, Will he arrive, etc., are treated as different forms of the same sentence, just as arrives, has arrived, will arrive etc., are different forms of the same verb. We may call this view of the sentence the paradigmatic view.

Now from the point of view of communication, He has arrived and He has not arrived are different sentences since they convey different information (indeed, the meaning of the one flatly contradicts that of the other).

2. functional expansion – procedures including various uses of functional words. From the syntactic point of view these words are transformers of syntactic construction in the same sense as the categorial morphemes (wordchanging) are transformers of morphological constructions:

He understood my request. – He seemed to understand my request.

Now they consider the suggestion. – Now they do consider the suggestion.

3. substitution by personal pronouns, demonstrative, indefinite pronouns, substitute combinations of half-notional words.

The pupils ran out of the classroom. – They ran out of the classroom.

I want another pen, please. – I want another one, please.

4. Deletion, elimination of some elements of the sentence in various contextual conditions. As a result of deletion the corresponding reduced (elliptical) constructions are produced.

Would you like a cup of tea? – A cup of tea?

It’s a pleasure! – Pleasure!

5. Positional arrangement – changes of the word order into reverse patterns, questions and inversion: In ran Jim with an excited cry.

6. Intonational arrangement, application of various functional tones and accents. This arrangement is represented in written and typed speech by punctuation marks, the use of italics and underlining.

We must go. – We must go? We? Must go??

You care nothing about what I feel. – You care nothing about what I feel!

Clausalization, phrasalization

The transformational model is different form other models, as it not just an analytical pattern, but a generative one.