- •Brief contents of the course:
- •I. Grammar as a linguistic study
- •Two branches of grammar – morphology, syntax
- •Glossary of Linguistic Terms
- •II. Grammar form, meaning, category
- •Glossary of Linguistic Terms
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •III. Wordbuilding and wordchanging
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •IV. Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meaning and their role in the modern English
- •Additional reading
- •V. Analytical means of expression of grammar meaning and their role in the modern English
- •Аdditional reading
- •VI. Parts of speech and the principles of their classification
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •VII. Noun. The general description
- •Additional reading
- •VIII. Noun. The category of number
- •Additional reading
- •Practical Tasks:
- •IX. Noun. The category of case
- •X. Noun. The category of gender.
- •Additional reading
- •XI. Article, its role and function. The number of articles in English
- •Additional reading
- •XII. Adjectives. Their grammatical categories.
- •Categories of adjectives:
- •Substantivisation of adjectives
- •Adjectivisation of nouns
- •Additional reading
- •XIII. Adverbs. Classification of adverbs.
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •Additional reading:
- •XV. Verb. The category of voice.
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •XVI. Verb. The category of mood.
- •Additional reading
- •XVII. Verb. The categories of tense, aspect and time correlation.
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •XVIII. Verb. The categories of person and number
- •Additional reading
- •The gerund
- •Additional reading
- •Additional reading
- •Practical tasks:
- •XXI. Pronouns
- •Additional reading
- •XXII. Numeral
- •Additional reading:
- •XXIII. Words of the category of state, statives
- •Additional reading
- •XXIV. Functional parts of speech. Preposition
- •Conjunctions
- •Particles
- •Interjection
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional Reading:
- •XXVIII. The notion of syntactic relations. Their main types.
- •Government
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXX. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the sentence
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •XXXI. The Structural aspect of the sentence
- •Glossary of lingustic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXII. The actual aspect of the sentence
- •Additional reading:
- •Glossary of linguistic terms
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXV. Models of syntactic analysis. Parts of the sentence
- •The lady listened
- •Small to me attentively
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •XXXVI. The model of immediate constituents
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •XXXVII. The distributional model
- •Glossary of lingustic terms
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXX. Predicate
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXXIII. Loose parts of sentence
- •Loose Attributes
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •XXXXIV. Complex, compound and
- •Intermediary types of sentences
- •The absolute construction
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXXV. The composite sentence. Compound sentences
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •XXXXVI. Types of subordinate clauses
- •Subject clauses
- •Object clauses
- •Attributive clauses
- •Types of adverbial clauses
- •Causal Clauses
- •Conditional Clauses
- •Clauses of Result
- •Clauses of Purpose
- •Clauses of Concession
- •Other Types of Adverbial Clauses
- •Appositional clauses
- •Parenthetical clauses
- •Glossary of linguistic terms:
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •XXXXVII. The problem of higher syntactical units
- •Glossary of linguistic terms
- •Additional reading:
- •Practical tasks:
- •Revision Tasks
- •Contents:
- •Bibliography
Glossary of linguistic terms:
pragmatic - практический
co-ordinate - сложносочиненный
clause – придаточное предложение
agent – агенс, со значением действующего лица
patient – пациенс, со значением объекта действия
Additional reading:
стр. 182
стр. 163 – 172
стр. 144- 147
стр. 255- 262
стр. 256- 266
XXX. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the sentence
The sentence as a lingual unit performs two semantic functions (as opposed to word and phrase, which have only the function of nomination) – first – substance-naming, or nominative function, second – reality-evaluating, or predicative function. The semantics of the sentence presents a unity of its nominative and predicative aspects, while the semantics of the word is monoaspective.
The notional parts of the sentence, referring to the basic elements of the reflected situation (знаменательные члены предложения, которые соотносятся с основными элементами ситуации, отраженной в предложении) form the nominative meaning of the sentence.
The semantic reflections of the elements of the situation, in contrast to the part of the sentence (upper case) make up the semantic roles or the “deeper cases”. It is only through the sentence constituents that the situation together with its various elements can be reflected. The semantic roles of the sentence are situational meanings of the syntactic parts.
The division of the sentence into notional parts, or the nominative division can be shown by a syntagmatic model and will be described as models of syntactic analyses: immediate constituents, distributional model and transformational model.
The division from the point of view of semantic contribution of the sentence parts is called the actual division.
The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore from the point of view of the function they can be classified into declarative, imperative and interrogative. These communicative types stand in strict opposition to one another, and their inner properties of form and meaning are immediately correlated with the corresponding features of the response.
Thus, declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative, and corresponds with responses of attention, agreement or disagreement. – I want to be given reasons for publishing the poem. – I have the same opinion.
The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. It urges the listener to perform of not to perform a certain action. It is connected with “action response” Silence on the part of the listener is also linguistically relevant. In the literary narration it is shown by special comments: Knock on the wood – he leaned forward and knocked three times on the barrier.
The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information. It is connected with an answer, forming together a dialogue unity.
Ways of expressing different purposes of communication are studied by the branch of linguistics called “pragmatic linguistics”. Each speech act is characterized by a definite communicative intention: statements of facts, conjectures (предположение), confirmations, refutations (опровержение), agreements, disagreements, commands, requests, greetings at meeting, at parting, exhortations (убеждение), recommendations, applications for information, supplications, promises, menaces, etc. Among them there are two mutually opposed pragmatic utterance types, constative utterances and performative utterances. Constative utterances express the speaker’s reflections of reality as they are, performative are verbal actions. Pronouncing a performative utterance, the speaker performs his complete action: I declare the conference open. The performance utterance includes (or implies) the pronoun of the 1st person singular (the direct indication of the speaker), while its verb is used only in the form of the present tense of the indicative mood active.
From the point of view of the actual division the interrogative sentence is rhematically gapping, its function consists only in marking the rhematic position in the response sentence. Different types of questions present different types of open rhemes. In the pronominal (special) question, the interrogative pronoun is immediately connected with the part of the sentence denoting the object about which the inquiry is made. The gapping meaning is to be replaced in the answer by the wanted information. Thus, the rheme of the answer is the substitute of the interrogative pronoun, the two make up a rhematic unity in the broader question-answer construction. As for the thematic part of the answer, it is already expressed in the question, therefore it is usually zeroed: Why do you think so? – Because I keep my eyes open.
The rheme of general and alternative questions is quite different. It is also open, but it consists in at least two semantic suggestions, presented for the choice. The answer closes the suggested alternative. – Will you take it away or open it here?
Thus, in terms of rhematic substitution, the special question is a question of unlimited substitution choice, while the general and alternative question is a question of a limited substitution choice.
In the structural framework of the interrogative sentence a statement can be expressed – a rhetorical question. Responses to rhetorical questions exactly correspond to responses to declarative sentences. – How can a woman be expected to be happy? – My dear!- Expression of fellow feeling. The rheme of this question is not open.
The imperative sentences in the form of a question occupy intermediary position between imperative and interrogative sentences, which is done in order to soften the meaning of command by adding a meaning of request.
Could you help me up the stairs?